1. National Income: Where it Comes From and Where it Goes
Chapter 3
National Income: Where it Comes From and Where it Goes

2. In this chapter, you will learn:
what determines the economy’s total output/income
how the prices of the factors of production are determined
how total income is distributed
what determines the demand for goods and services
how equilibrium in the goods market is achieved 1

3. The circular flow of the economy

4. Outline of the macroeconomic model
A closed economy, market-clearing model
Supply side
factor markets (supply, demand, price)
determination of output/income
Demand side
determinants of C, I, and G
Equilibrium
goods market
loanable funds market
It’s useful for students to keep in mind the “big picture” as they learn the individual components of the model in the following slides.

5. Factors of production
K = capital: tools, machines, and structures used in production
L = labor: the physical and mental efforts of workers
In the simple model of this chapter, we think of capital as plant & equipment. In the real world, capital also includes inventories and residential housing, as discussed in Chapter 2.
Students may have learned in their principles course that “land” or “land and natural resources” is an additional factor of production. In macro, we mainly focus on labor and capital, though. So, to keep our model simple, we usually omit land as a factor of production, as we can learn a lot about the macroeconomy despite the omission of land.

6. The production function: Y = F(K,L)
shows how much output (Y ) the economy can produce from K units of capital and L units of labor
reflects the economy’s level of technology
exhibits constant returns to scale

7. Returns to scale: A review
Initially Y1 = F (K1 , L1 )
Scale all inputs by the same factor z:
K2 = zK1 and L2 = zL1
(e.g., if z = 1.2, then all inputs are increased by 20%)
What happens to output, Y2 = F (K2, L2 )?
If constant returns to scale, Y2 = zY1
If increasing returns to scale, Y2 > zY1
If decreasing returns to scale, Y2 < zY1
This review includes 7 slides. If you’d like to shorten this chapter, you might consider skipping a few of these slides.

8. Returns to scale: Example 1
constant returns to scale for any z > 0

9. Returns to scale: Example 2
decreasing returns to scale for any z > 1

10. Returns to scale: Example 3
increasing returns to scale for any z > 1

11. Exercise: Returns to Scale
Determine whether each of these production functions has constant, decreasing, or increasing returns to scale:
(a)
(b)

12. Exercise: Answers, part (a)
constant returns to scale for any z > 0

13. EXERCISE: Answers, part (b)
constant returns to scale for any z > 0

14. Assumptions Technology is fixed.
The economy’s supplies of capital and labor are fixed at
Emphasize that “K” and “L” (without bars on top) are variables - they can take on various magnitudes. On the other hand, “Kbar” and “Lbar” are specific values of these variables. Hence, “K = Kbar” means that the variable K equals the specific amount Kbar.
Regarding the assumptions:
In chapters 7 and 8 (the Economic Growth chapters), we will relax these assumptions: K and L will grow in response to investment and population growth, respectively, and the level of technology will increase over time.

15. Determining GDP
Output is determined by the fixed factor supplies and the fixed state of technology:
With CRS, GDP per capita is:
Again, emphasize that “F(Kbar,Lbar)” means we are evaluating the function at a particular combination of capital and labor. The resulting value of output is called “Ybar”.

16. The distribution of national income
determined by factor prices, the prices per unit firms pay for the factors of production
wage = price of L
rental rate = price of K
Recall from chapter 2: the value of output equals the value of income. The income is paid to the workers, capital owners, land owners, and so forth. We now explore a simple theory of income distribution.

17. Notation W = nominal wage R = nominal rental rate P = price of output
W /P = real wage (measured in units of output)
R /P = real rental rate
It might be worthwhile to refresh students’ memory about nominal and real variables.
The nominal wage & rental rate are measured in currency units.
The real wage is measured in units of output.
To see this, suppose W = $10/hour and P = $2 per unit of output.
Then, W/P = ($10/hour) / ($2/unit of output) = 5 units of output per hour of work.
It’s true, the firm is paying the workers in money units, not in units of output. But, the real wage is the purchasing power of the wage - the amount of stuff that workers can buy with their wage.

18. How factor prices are determined
Factor prices are determined by supply and demand in factor markets.
Recall: Supply of each factor is fixed.
What about demand?
Since the distribution of income depends on factor prices, we need to see how factor prices are determined.
Each factor’s price is determined by supply and demand in a market for that factor. For instance, supply and demand for labor determine the wage.

19. Demand for labor
Assume markets are competitive: each firm takes W, R, and P as given.
Basic idea: A firm hires each unit of labor if the cost does not exceed the benefit.
cost = real wage
benefit = marginal product of labor

20. Marginal product of labor (MPL )
Definition: The extra output the firm can produce using an additional unit of labor (holding other inputs fixed):
MPL = F (K, L +1) – F (K, L)
With derivatives:
It is the slope of the production function

21. EXERCISE: Compute & graph MPL
L Y MPL
0 0 n.a.
1 10 ?
2 19 ?
3 27 ?
4 34 ?
5 40 ?
6 45 ?
7 49 ?
8 52 ?
9 54 ?
10 55 ?
a. Determine MPL at each value of L. b. Graph the production function. c. Graph the MPL curve with MPL on the vertical axis and L on the horizontal axis.
This exercise is pretty basic review. It’s good for students who have not had principles of economics in a few years, and students whose graphing skills could benefit from some remedial attention. Many instructors could probably “hide” or omit this and the next slide from their presentations.

22. EXERCISE: Answers
This exercise is pretty basic review. It’s good for students who have not had principles of economics in a few years, and students whose graphing skills could benefit from some remedial attention.

23. MPL and the production functionY
output 1
MPL
As more labor is added, MPL  1
MPL
(Figure 3-3 on p.52)
It’s straightforward to see that the MPL = the prod function’s slope: The definition of the slope of a curve is the amount the curve rises when you move one unit to the right. On this graph, moving one unit to the right simply means using one additional unit of labor. The amount the curve rises is the amount by which output increases: the MPL.
Slope of the production function equals MPL
MPL 1 L
labor

24. Diminishing marginal returns
As a factor input is increased, its marginal product falls (other things equal).
Intuition: Suppose L while holding K fixed
 fewer machines per worker
 lower worker productivity
Tell class: Many production functions have this property.
This slide introduces some short-hand notation that will appear throughout the PowerPoint presentations of the remaining chapters:
The up and down arrows mean increase and decrease, respectively.
The symbol “” means “causes” or “leads to.”
Hence, the text after “Intuition” should be read as follows:
“An increase in labor while holding capital fixed causes there to be fewer machines per worker, which causes lower productivity.”
Many instructors use this type of short-hand (or something very similar), and it’s much easier and quicker for students to write down in their notes.

25. EXERCISE: Identifying Diminishing Marginal Returns
Which of these production functions have diminishing marginal returns to labor?
Answers:
(a) does NOT have diminishing MPL; MPL = 15, regardless of the value of L.
(b) and (c) both feature diminishing MPL
To get the answers:
- using calculus: take the derivative of F( ) with respect to L. The resulting expression is the MPL. Looking at this expression, determine whether MPL falls as L rises. (Or, take derivative of your MPL function w.r.t. L and see whether it’s positive, negative, or zero.)
- using algebra: plug in any value for K and another value for L. See what happens if you increase L, then increase it again, and again. This may require a calculator.
- finally, you can sketch the graph of these production functions (Y on the vertical, L on the horizontal, assuming a given value of K). If you know the general shape of the square root function, then it’s easy to tell that (b) and (c) have diminishing marginal returns.

26. ANSWERS Identifying Diminishing Returns
No, MPL = 15 for all L
Yes, MPL falls as L rises
To get the answers:
- Using calculus: Take the derivative of F( ) with respect to L. The resulting expression is the MPL. Looking at this expression, determine whether MPL falls as L rises. (Or, take derivative of your MPL function w.r.t. L and see whether it’s positive, negative, or zero.)
- Using algebra: Plug in any value for K and another value for L. See what happens if you increase L, then increase it again, and again. This may require a calculator.
- With a graph: You can sketch the graph of these production functions (Y on the vertical, L on the horizontal, assuming a given value of K). If you know the general shape of the square root function, then it’s easy to tell that (b) and (c) have diminishing marginal returns.
Yes, MPL falls as L rises 25

27. EXERCISE: MPL and labor demand
L Y MPL
0 0 n.a.
2 19 9
3 27 8
4 34 7
5 40 6
6 45 5
7 49 4
8 52 3
9 54 2
Suppose W/P = 6.
If L = 3, should firm hire more or less labor? Why?
If L = 7, should firm hire more or less labor? Why?
If L=3, then the benefit of hiring the fourth worker (MPL=7) exceeds the cost of doing so (W/P = 6), so it pays the firm to increase L.
If L=7, then the firm should hire fewer workers: the 7th worker adds only MPL=4 units of output, yet cost W/P = 6.
The point of this slide is to get students to see the idea behind the labor demand = MPL curve.

28. ANSWERS MPL and labor demand
L Y MPL
0 0 n.a.
2 19 9
3 27 8
4 34 7
5 40 6
6 45 5
7 49 4
8 52 3
9 54 2
If L = 3, should firm hire more or less labor? Answer: YES, because the benefit of the 4th worker (MPL = 7) exceeds its cost (W/P = 6) If L = 7, should firm hire more or less labor? Answer: NO, the firm should reduce labor. The 7th worker adds MPL = 4 units of output but costs the firm W/P = 6.
If L = 3, then the benefit of hiring the fourth worker (MPL = 7) exceeds the cost of doing so (W/P = 6), so it pays the firm to increase L.
If L = 7, then the firm should hire fewer workers: the 7th worker adds only MPL = 4 units of output, yet cost W/P = 6.
The point of this slide is to get students to see the idea behind the labor demand = MPL curve. 27

29. MPL and the demand for labor
Units of output
Units of labor, L
Each firm hires labor up to the point where MPL = W/P.
MPL, Labor demand
Real wage
Quantity of labor demanded
It’s easy to see that the MPL curve is the firm’s L demand curve.
Let L* be the value of L such that MPL = W/P.
Suppose L < L*. Then, benefit of hiring one more worker (MPL) exceeds cost (W/P), so firm can increase profits by hiring one more worker.
Instead, suppose L > L*. Then, the benefit of the last worker hired (MPL) is less than the cost (W/P), so firm should reduce labor to increase its profits.
When L = L*, then firm cannot increase its profits either by raising or lowering L.
Hence, firm hires L to the point where MPL = W/P.
This establishes that the MPL curve is the firm’s labor demand curve.

30. The equilibrium real wage
Units of output
Units of labor, L
Labor supply
The real wage adjusts to equate labor demand with supply.
MPL, Labor demand
equilibrium real wage
The labor supply curve is vertical: We are assuming that the economy has a fixed quantity of labor, Lbar, regardless of whether the real wage is high or low.
Combining this labor supply curve with the demand curve we’ve developed in previous slides shows how the real wage is determined.

31. Determining the rental rate
We have just seen that MPL = W/P.
The same logic shows that MPK = R/P:
diminishing returns to capital: MPK  as K 
The MPK curve is the firm’s demand curve for renting capital.
Firms maximize profits by choosing K such that MPK = R/P.
In our model, it’s easiest to think of firms renting capital from households (the owners of all factors of production). R/P is the real cost of renting a unit of K for one period of time.
In the real world, of course, many firms own some of their capital. But, for such a firm, the market rental rate is the opportunity cost of using its own capital instead of renting it to another firm. Hence, R/P is the relevant “price” in firms’ capital demand decisions, whether firms own their capital or rent it.

32. The equilibrium real rental rate
Units of output
Units of capital, K
Supply of capital
The real rental rate adjusts to equate demand for capital with supply.
MPK, demand for capital
equilibrium R/P
The previous slide used the same logic behind the labor demand curve to assert that the capital demand curve is the same as the downward-sloping MPK curve.
The supply of capital is fixed (by assumption), so the supply curve is vertical.
The real rental rate (R/P) is determined by the intersection of the two curves.

33. Mathematically
Each firm demands L and K to maximize profits, taking technology (F) and prices (W, R and P) as given.
Market demand: aggregate demand of each firm

34. The Neoclassical Theory of Distribution
states that each factor input is paid its marginal product
a good starting point for thinking about income distribution

35. How income is distributed to L and K
total labor income =
total capital income =
If production function has constant returns to scale, then
The last equation follows from Euler’s theorem, discussed in text on p. 55.
national income
labor income
capital income

36. Profits and capital rent
economic profits =
accounting profits = economic profits +
The math of Euler’s theorem: F has CRS, so
The last equation follows from Euler’s theorem, discussed in text on p. 55.

37. The ratio of labor income to total income in the U.S., 1960-2010
Labor’s share of total income
This graph appears in the textbook as Figure 3-5.
Source:
US Department of Labor
National Economic Accounts>Interactive Table Home>Table Selection>
Table 1.10 (Gross Domestic Income by Type of Income) and Table 1.12 (National Income by Type of Income)
Labor’s share of income is approximately constant over time. (Thus, capital’s share is, too.)

38. :

40. The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
The Cobb-Douglas production function has constant factor shares:
 = capital’s share of total income:
capital income = MPK x K =  Y
labor income = MPL x L = (1 –  )Y
The Cobb-Douglas production function is:
where A represents the level of technology.

41. The Cobb-Douglas Production Function
Each factor’s marginal product is proportional to its average product:
These formulas can be derived with basic calculus and algebra.

42. Labor productivity and wages
Theory: wages depend on labor productivity
U.S. data:
period
productivity growth
real wage growth
1960–2010
2.2%
1.9%
1960–1973
2.9%
2.8%
1973–1995
1.4%
1.2%
1995–2010
2.7%
The table shows the average annual rates of productivity and real wage growth in each time period.
Source: Economic Report of the President 2008
and US Department of Commerce

43. A closed economy, market-clearing model
Outline of model
A closed economy, market-clearing model
Supply side
determination of output/income
factor markets (supply, demand, price)
Demand side
determinants of C, I, and G
Equilibrium
goods market
loanable funds market
DONE 
DONE 
Next 
We’ve now completed the supply side of the model.

44. Demand for goods & services
Components of aggregate demand:
C = consumer demand for goods & services
I = demand for investment goods
G = government demand for goods & services
(closed economy: no NX )
“g & s” is short for “goods & services”

45. Consumption, C
def: Disposable income is total income minus total taxes: Y – T.
Consumption function: C = C (Y – T )
Shows that (Y – T )  C
def: Marginal propensity to consume (MPC) is the change in C when disposable income increases by one euro.
Mathematically:
Again, we are using the short-hand notation that will appear throughout the remaining PowerPoints:
X  Y means “an increase in X causes a decrease in Y.”
Please feel free to edit slides if you wish to substitute other notation.

46. The consumption function
Y – T
C (Y –T )
The slope of the consumption function is the MPC.
MPC 1

47. Investment, I The investment function is I = I (r ),
where r denotes the real interest rate, the nominal interest rate corrected for inflation.
The real interest rate is
the cost of borrowing
the opportunity cost of using one’s own funds to finance investment spending
So, r  I

48. The investment functionr I
Spending on investment goods depends negatively on the real interest rate.
I (r )

49. Government spending, G G = govt spending on goods and services.
G excludes transfer payments (e.g., social security benefits, unemployment insurance benefits).
Assume government spending and total taxes are exogenous:
It might be useful to remind students of the meaning of the terms “exogenous” and “transfer payments.”

50. The market for goods & services
Aggregate demand:
Aggregate supply:
Equilibrium:
The real interest rate adjusts to equate demand with supply.
In the equation for the equilibrium condition, note that the real interest rate is the only variable that doesn’t have a “bar” over it – it’s the only endogenous variable in the equation, and it adjusts to equate the demand and supply in the goods market.
When the full slide is showing, before you advance to the next one, you might want to note that the interest rate is important in financial markets as well, so we will next develop a simple model of the financial system.

51. The loanable funds market
A simple supply-demand model of the financial system.
One asset: “loanable funds”
demand for funds: investment
supply of funds: saving
“price” of funds: real interest rate

52. Demand for funds: Investment
The demand for loanable funds…
comes from investment: Firms borrow to finance spending on plant & equipment, new office buildings, etc. Consumers borrow to buy new houses.
depends negatively on r, the “price” of loanable funds (cost of borrowing).

53. Loanable funds demand curveI
The investment curve is also the demand curve for loanable funds.
I (r )

54. Supply of funds: Saving
The supply of loanable funds comes from saving:
Households use their saving to make bank deposits, purchase bonds and other assets. These funds become available to firms to borrow to finance investment spending.
The government may also contribute to saving if it does not spend all the tax revenue it receives.

55. Types of saving private saving = (Y – T ) – C public saving = T – G
national saving, S
S = private saving + public saving
S = (Y –T ) – C T – G
S = Y – C – G
After showing definition of private saving,
- give the interpretation of the equation: private saving is disposable income minus consumption spending
- explain why private saving is part of the supply of loanable funds:
Suppose a person earns $50,000/year, pays $10,000 in taxes, and spends $35,000 on goods and services. There’s $5000 remaining. What happens to that $5000? The person might use it to buy stocks or bonds, or she might put it in her savings account or money market deposit account. In all of these cases, this $5000 becomes part of the supply of loanable funds in the financial system.
After displaying public saving, explain the equation’s interpretation: public saving is tax revenue minus government spending.
Notice the analogy to private saving – both concepts represent income less spending: for the private household, income is (Y-T) and spending is C. For the government, income is T and spending is G.

56. Notation:  = change in a variable
For any variable X, X = “the change in X ”
 is the Greek (uppercase) letter Delta
Examples:
If L = 1 and K = 0, then Y = MPL.
More generally, if K = 0, then
The Delta notation will be used throughout the text, so it would be very helpful if your students started getting accustomed to it now.
If your students have taken a semester of calculus, tell them that X is (practically) the same thing as dX (if X is small). Furthermore, some basic rules from calculus apply here with s:
The derivative of a sum is the sum of the derivatives: (X+Y) = X + Y
The product rule: XY = (X)(Y) + (X)(Y)
In fact, you can derive the two arithmetic tricks for working with percentage changes presented in chapter 2.
Just take the preceding expression for the product rule and divide through by XY to get (XY)/XY = X/X + Y/Y, the first of the two arithmetic tricks.
(YT ) = Y  T , so
C = MPC  (Y  T )
= MPC Y  MPC T

57. NOW YOU TRY: Calculate the change in saving
Suppose MPC = 0.8 and MPL = 20.
For each of the following, compute S :
a. G = 100
b. T = 100
c. Y = 100
d. L = 10
This problem reinforces the concepts with concrete numerical examples. It’s also a good way to break up the lecture and get students actively involved with the material.

58. NOW YOU TRY: Answers
First, in the box at the top of the slide, we plug the given value for the MPC into the expression for S and simplify.
Then, finding the answers is straightforward: just plug in the given values into the expression for S.

59. Budget surpluses and deficits
If T > G, budget surplus = (T – G ) = public saving.
If T < G, budget deficit = (G – T ) and public saving is negative.
If T = G , “balanced budget,” public saving = 0.
Governments finance deficit by borrowing, i.e., by issuing Treasury bonds (called Bot, Btp, Cct in Italy, Bund in Germany, T-Bills in the US).

60. U.S. Federal Government Surplus/Deficit, 1940-2009 and estimates for 2010-2015
percent of GDP
Notes:
1. The huge deficit in the early 1940s was due to WW2. Wars are expensive.
2. The budget is closed to balanced in the ’50s and ’60s, and begins a downward trend in the ’70s.
3. The early ’80s saw the largest deficits (as % of GDP) of the post-WW2 era, due to the Reagan tax cuts, defense buildup, and growth in entitlement program outlays.
4. The budget begins a positive trend in the early 1990s, and a surplus emerges in the late 1990s. There are several possible explanations for the improvement. First, President Bush (the first one) broke his campaign promise not to raise taxes. Second, the Clinton administration barely squeaked a deficit reduction deal through Congress (with Al Gore casting the tie-breaking vote in the Senate). And third, and probably most important, there was a swelling of tax revenues due to the surge in economic growth and the stock market boom. (A stock market boom leads to large capital gains, which leads to large revenues from the capital gains tax.)
5. The budget swings to deficit again in 2001, due to the Bush tax cuts and a recession.
6. Recently, the budget deficit in current dollars has reached all-time highs, due to a sharp fall tax receipts, the enactment of multi-billion dollar bailouts and a large stimulus package.
data source:
Budget of the United States Government: Historical Tables Fiscal Year 2011, Table 1.2

61. U.S. Federal Government Debt, 1940-2009 and estimates for 2010-2015
percent of GDP
A later chapter will give more details, but for now, tell students that the government finances its deficits by borrowing from the public. (This borrowing takes the form of selling Treasury bonds). Persistent deficits over time imply persistent borrowing, which causes the debt to increase.
After WW2, occasional budget surpluses allowed the government to retire some of its WW2 debt; also, normal economic growth increased the denominator of the debt-to-GDP ratio. Starting in the early 1980s, corresponding to the beginning of huge and persistent deficits, we see a huge increase in the debt-to-GDP ratio, from 32% in 1981 to 66% in In the mid 1990s, budget surpluses and rapid growth started to reduce the debt-to-GDP ratio, but it started rising again in 2001 due to the economic slowdown, the Bush tax cuts, and higher spending (Afghanistan & Iraq, war on terrorism, 2002 airline bailout, etc).
The recent financial crisis / recession has increased the debt ratio, as revenues have fallen while outlays (the stimulus package, bailouts) have sharply increased.
source:
Budget of the United States Government: Historical Tables Fiscal Year 2011 Table 7.1

62. Italian Government Debt, 1861-2007
Source:

63. Government Surplus/Deficit, 1995-2013 Selected European countries, % of GDP
Source: Eurostat, Net lending (+)/Net borrowing (-)

64. Government Debts, 1995-2013 Selected European countries, % of GDP
Source: Eurostat, Government consolidated gross debt

65. Government Surplus/Deficit, 1995-2013 PIIGS, % of GDP
Source: Eurostat, Net lending (+)/Net borrowing (-) under the EDP (Excessive Deficit Procedure)

66. Government Debts, 1995-2013 PIIGS, % of GDP
Source: Eurostat, Government consolidated gross debt

67. Loanable funds supply curve
S, I
National saving does not depend on r, so the supply curve is vertical.
At the end of this chapter, we will briefly consider how things would be different if Consumption (and therefore Saving) were allowed to depend on the interest rate.
For now, though, they do not.

68. Loanable funds market equilibrium
S, I
I (r )
Equilibrium real interest rate
Equilibrium level of investment

69. The special role of r Eq’m in L.F. market Eq’m in goods market
r adjusts to equilibrate the goods market and the loanable funds market simultaneously:
If L.F. market is in equilibrium, then
S = I orY – C – G = I
Add (C +G ) to both sides to get
Y = C + I + G (goods market eq’m)
Thus,
This slide establishes that we can use the loanable funds supply/demand diagram to see how the interest rate that clears the goods market is determined.
Explain that the symbol  means each one implies the other. The thing on the left implies the thing on the right, and vice versa.
More short-hand: “eq’m” is short for “equilibrium” and “LF” for “loanable funds.”
Eq’m in L.F. market
Eq’m in goods market

70. Comparative statics
The equilibrium level of endogenous variables changes in response to changes in the exogenous variables.
In the loanable funds model, what shifts supply and demand curves?
How does the equilibrium react to changes in the exogenous variables?

71. Shifts in saving Things that shift the saving curve public saving
fiscal policy: changes in G or T
private saving
preferences
tax laws that affect saving
replace income tax with consumption tax
taxes on interests income
Continuing from the previous slide, let’s look at all the things that affect the S curve. Then, we will pick one of those things and use the model to analyze its effects on the endogenous variables. Then, we’ll do the same for the I curve.

72. CASE STUDY: The Reagan deficits
Reagan policies during early 1980s:
increases in defense spending: G > 0
big tax cuts: T < 0
Both policies reduce national saving:

73. CASE STUDY: The Reagan deficits
1. The increase in the deficit reduces saving… r
S, I
I (r ) r2
2. …which causes the real interest rate to rise… r1
3. …which reduces the level of investment. I2 I1

74. Are the data consistent with these results?
variable 1970s 1980s
T – G –2.2 –3.9 S r I
Display the data line by line, noting that it matches the model’s predictions---UNTIL YOU GET TO Investment.
The model says that investment should have fallen as much as savings. Ask students why they think it didn’t.
Answer: in our closed economy model of chapter 3, the only source of loanable funds is national saving. But the U.S. is actually an open economy. In the face of a fall in national saving (i.e. the domestic supply of loanable funds), firms can finance their investment spending by importing foreign loanable funds. More on this in an upcoming chapter.
T–G, S, and I are expressed as a percent of GDP
All figures are averages over the decade shown.

75. CASE STUDY: UK wars and interest rates, 1730-1920
Figure 3-10 in the text.
Source:
Barro, Robert J., 1987.
"Government spending, interest rates, prices, and budget deficits in the United Kingdom, ," Journal of Monetary Economics, Elsevier, vol. 20(2), pages , September.

76. NOW YOU TRY: The effects of saving incentives
Draw the diagram for the loanable funds model.
Suppose the tax laws are altered to provide more incentives for private saving. (Assume that total tax revenue T does not change)
What happens to the interest rate and investment?
Students may be confused because we are (somehow) changing taxes, but assuming T is unchanged. Taxes have different effects. The total amount of taxes (T ) affects disposable income. But even if we hold total taxes constant, a change in the structure or composition of taxes can have effects. Here, by holding total taxes constant, we ensure that neither disposable income nor public saving change, yet the composition of taxes changes to give consumers an incentive to increase their saving.

77. Shifts in investment demand
Things that shift the investment curve:
some technological innovations
to take advantage some innovations, firms must buy new investment goods
tax laws that affect investment
e.g., investment tax credit

78. An increase in investment demand
S, I I2 I1
…raises the interest rate.
An increase in desired investment… r2 r1
But the equilibrium level of investment cannot increase because the supply of loanable funds is fixed.

79. Saving and the interest rate
Why might saving depend on r ?
How would the results of an increase in investment demand be different?
Would r rise as much?
Would the equilibrium value of I change?
Suggestion: Display these questions and give your students 3-4 minutes, working in pairs, to try to find the answers. Then display the analysis on the next slide.
Reasons why saving might depend on r:
An increase in r makes saving more attractive , increases the reward for postponing consumption
Many consumers finance their spending on big-ticket items like cars and furniture, and an increase in r makes such borrowing more expensive.
However, an increase in r might also reduce saving through the income effect: a higher interest rate makes net savers better off, so they purchase more of all “normal” goods. If current consumption is a normal good, then it will rise and saving will fall. It is usually assumed that the substitution effect is at least as great as the income effect, so that an increase in the interest rate will either increase saving or leave saving unchanged.

80. An increase in investment demand when saving depends on r
S, I
An increase in investment demand raises r,
which induces an increase in the quantity of saving,
which allows I to increase.
I(r)2
I(r) r2 I2 r1 I1

81. Chapter Summary Total output is determined by:
the economy’s quantities of capital and labor
the level of technology
Competitive firms hire each factor until its marginal product equals its price.
If the production function has constant returns to scale, then labor income plus capital income equals total income (output). 80

82. Chapter Summary A closed economy’s output is used for:
consumption
investment
government spending
The real interest rate adjusts to equate the demand for and supply of:
goods and services
loanable funds 81

83. Chapter Summary
A decrease in national saving causes the interest rate to rise and investment to fall.
An increase in investment demand causes the interest rate to rise, but does not affect the equilibrium level of investment if the supply of loanable funds is fixed.
The equilibrium level of investment rises if saving depends on the interest. 82