1. Origin & Development of the US Constitution
Module 1.0: Antecedents to the American Founding

2. Central Political Concepts
Politics
those things which concern and which are characteristic of ordered communities
Justice
In politics, what is the right or best use of power, assignment of authority, and direction of government
Human nature
since political communities are composed of human beings,
we must understand something of human nature to order communities
according to their proper telos
Power
The ability and action either of giving order to a community or steering a community. The power to give order to a community is to Rule; the power to steer a community is to Govern
Government
For the Old Science of Politics, the process of steering a city
toward a particular telos
Authority
any recognized wielder of power
Legitimacy
who should have power or authority

3. Plato’s Republic
For Plato, the orders of the city reflect the orders of the human soul
The human soul shapes the city, and the city shapes the soul
A well-ordered soul, therefore, may bring about a well-ordered city
Different orders in cities bring about different types of people
Some people are better suited to exercise power than others
Power, therefore, is best exercised by those who are fit to wield it, i.e. those with well-ordered souls

4. Plato’s Best City
If the highest good is proper to man, then cities must be ordered to lead men to the highest good.
The only legitimate ruler, therefore, is the one who seeks the highest good—a lover of wisdom:
The Philosopher King
Ironically he who seeks the highest good is least of all concerned with the affairs of the city.

5. The corruption of regimes
Philosophical Kingship—the One who knows (and loves) the True, the Good, the Beautiful (contemplates the realm of Eternal Forms)
Aristocracy—rule by the “best” in the city
Timocracy—rule of honor
Oligarchy—rule by the few
Democracy—rule by the many
Tyranny—rule by the ‘usurper’, usually one
For Plato, each of these cities eventually corrupts into the city below it. The best city, the rule of the Philosopher King, yields to the aristocracy when the King dies and there is no equal lover of wisdom to replace him. Those closest to the philosopher king would be the “Best” in the city and form the aristocracy, but since they are not yet lovers of wisdom themselves, they cannot be certain how to maintain the “best” after they are gone. Contests are established to decide the new ‘best’ who are recognized with honors. At first the honors are bestowed on the honorable, and they form the Timocracy once the aristocrats are gone. These timocrats derive their rule from honor, yet eventually honors are confused with honor itself. Are they honored because they are honorable or vice versa? Once honors and honor are switched, the regime collapses into the Oligarchy—rule by the few. The city is divided into the few (oligoi) and the many (demos). The many overpower the few and establish a democracy where everyone seeks to rule. In such cases a demagogue steps forward promising to restore order and thus usurps the democracy, becoming a tyrant.

6. Aristotle’s Politics Human beings always found in ordered communities
Even households are ordered communities
Human beings cannot live long in isolation
Ergo, man must be political by nature
Those who are totally self-sufficient (i.e. they need no human contact of any kind) are either superhuman or subhuman
All human beings seek that which they think is good
All communities are ordered towards some good

7. Building Aristotle’s Cities
Who Rules?
One
Few
Many
For Whose Good?
The City’s Good
The Rulers’ Good
What about the good of the Ruled? What happens if a Ruler rules for the good of the Ruled and ignores his own good?

8. Virtuous and Defective Cities
Who Rules?
One
Few
Many
For Whose Good?
Monarchy
Tyranny ?
Aristocracy
Oligarchy
Democracy

9. The Mixed Regime The One The Few The Many
In Aristotle’s Mixed Regime, Each part of the city both rules and is ruled in turn

10. Niccolo Machiavelli (1469-1527)
Political questions emphasize methods over purposes
Politics inevitably deals with necessity
No man rules but is ruled by need
We are all equally self-interested
Men cannot to be trusted to be anything but selfish
Statecraft requires anticipating necessity
One must manipulate appearances to preserve one’s state

11. Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) Human beings alike in their nature
Human nature best seen in the absence of society
self-interested
State of Nature so bad, so dangerous that we must leave it to form societies
Societies depend on a social contract among its members
Terms of Hobbes’ social contract: exchange rights for security
Sovereigns established by societies to enforce the social contract
Sovereigns superior in power to subjects
Sovereigns limited by the needs of the social contract
Sovereigns may be replaced when they fail to enforce the social contract.

12. John Locke (1632-1704) Human beings are alike in their nature
Every man a sovereign in the State of Nature
State of Nature insecure
Societies depend on a social contract under Natural Law
Terms of Locke’s Social Contract: share executive power over the Law of Nature to secure life liberty & property
Civil Government established to enforce Natural Law where individuals cannot
Civil Sovereigns equal to subjects
Civil Government limited by Law of Nature and Social Contract
Civil Government may be replaced if they violate either of these
New Civil governments require consent for legitimacy