1. INTRODUCTION TO SPATIAL ANALYSIS

2. Four fundamental functions of GIS fall under the manipulation and analysis component (Martin, 1991):
Reclassification operations
Overlay operations
Distance and connectivity measurements
Neighbourhood characterisation
Will be discussed in the next chapter.

3. 1. Reclassification operations
transform the attribute information associated with a single map coverage. E.g.
allow the “cause-and-effect” of certain spatial factors be evaluated. E.g.
* population densities classified into classes such
as 'sparsely populated' or 'overcrowded' etc.)
* soil types and farmland values
* generalising land use pattern

4. Example: the darker the more dense the state population
MAP

5. Re-classification Analysis - Association Between Land Value and Soil Types

6. ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION
classification provides new patterns/relationships
URBAN
RESIDENTIAL
INDUSTRIAL
RURAL
FOREST
AGRICULTURE
ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION
GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION

7. Classification (cont.)
Land parcels for housing are classed into
single storey terrace,
double storey terrace and
bungalow.
Generalisation:
single storey terrace, double storey terrace and bungalow are generalised under housing lots

8. 2. Overlay operations
involve the combination of two or more maps according to boolean conditions and may result in the delineation of new boundaries of housing market

9. An overlay of three layers of datab r M e a n o f s i d u l - 5 m . h p 7 4 ( g t v ) 3 8 D G w C y c U K B O R E S 1 2 k W
Ordnance Survey Crown Copyright. All rights reserved

10. 3. Distance and connectivity measurements
include both simple measures of inter-point distance and more complex operations such as the construction of zones of increasing transport cost away from specified locations.
Distance measurement can be used to calculate straight line and network distance.
Includes perimeter and area measurements…

11. MEASUREMENT B D A C DISTANCE PARAMETER AREA/SIZE 5 KM X Y
A- B = 20 = 40%
B- C = 20 = 40%
C - D= 10 = 20% 2
10 km

12. DISTANCE (STRAIGHT LINE) MEASUREMENT
A- B: Alor Setar - Kuala Lumpur
360 KM
B- C: Kuala Lumpur - Kuantan
270 KM
TOTAL: 630 KM

13. AREA MEASUREMENT
29.69
42.4
99.928
96.084
51.75
97.883
95.026
96.215
23.6
95.231

14. 4. Neighbourhood characterisation
involves ascribing values to location according to characteristics of the surrounding region.
Such operations may involve both summary and mean measures of a variable.
This can be used to examine positive and negative spatial autocorrelation house price hedonic models.

15. Neighbourhood analysis of mean selling prices within certain distance of a house
Ordnance Survey Crown Copyright. All rights reserved

16. Other View of GIS Functions
Anselin (1998) proposes that GIS functions can be classified as follows
Selection
Manipulation
Exploration
Confirmation

17. GIS functions
Selection: involves boolean queries and spatial sampling. This seems similar to the overlay operations function.
Manipulation: may be based on attribute data, map data, or integration of both, simultaneously. This means analysing data in an integrated manner where various data as available in the database can be combined in an analysis.
Exploration: for investigation of spatial structure and involves description and visualisation. This is relevant to spatial autocorrelation analysis of hedonic models using geo-statistical method
Confirmation: for modelling spatial association and/or autocorrelation. This is also more relevant to spatial autocorrelation analysis using geostatistical method.

18. DATA RECALL can be invoked on spatial and attribute components
involves selective search
no new objects created
examples:
* lots owned by foreigners
* lots along the substation buffer

19. LOTS OWNED BY FOREIGNERS

20. CLASSIFICATION AND GENERALISATION
classification - identify a set of characteristics to group together objects.
in a vector system, classification involves addition of objects characteristics.
in a raster system, classification involves converting or coding cell values.
classification examples: Land parcels for housing are classed into single storey terras, double storey terras and bungalow.
classification provides new patterns/relationships
generalisation: single storey terrace, double storey terrace and bungalow are generalised under housing lots

21. Housing Age
Legend
Before 1900
1951 to 1999
Map showing classification of buildings according to age

22. ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION
URBAN
RESIDENTIAL
INDUSTRIAL
RURAL
FOREST
AGRICULTURE
ORIGINAL CLASSIFICATION
GENERALIZED CLASSIFICATION

23. converting attribute values for polygon, line and point raster data
...
vector data
converting attribute values for polygon, line and point
raster data
converting attribute values of group cell

24. measurement functions includes distance, parameter and area
example: land parcels larger than 5 hectares
example: shortest distance from KLCC to Pudu bas station

25. MEASUREMENT B D A C DISTANCE PARAMETER AREA/SIZE 5 KM X Y
A- B = 20 = 40%
B- C = 20 = 40%
C - D= 10 = 20% 2
10 km

26. DISTANCE MEASUREMENT A- B: Alor Setar - Kuala Lumpur 360 KM
B- C: Kuala Lumpur - Kuantan
270 KM
TOTAL: 630 KM

27. AREA MEASUREMENT
29.69
42.4
99.928
96.084
51.75
97.883
95.026
96.215
23.6
95.231

28. area and parameter is obtained from coordinates of the polygon nodes
... MEASUREMENT
vector data
area and parameter is obtained from coordinates of the polygon nodes
distance is derived from coordinates of starting/ending nodes
is more accurate than raster data

29. SEARCHING
determine values against target object according to a neighbourhood characteristic
three parameters need to be identified
targets
neighbourhood around the targets
applied neighbourhood function for resultant values
example: total of households within 1 km of proposed shopping mall
target-shopping mall
neighborhood-in the radius of 1 km
function-total residential units

31. perform as overlay operations
... SPATIAL SEARCH
operated as additional points in polygon, line in polygon and polygon in polygon
vector data
point, line or polygon analysed with neighbourhood polygon using coordinate nodes
involves complex calculation with overlapping and out-of-boundary neighbourhood
raster data
perform as overlay operations

32. represents ‘distance’ between map features
NEIGHBOURHOOD
represents ‘distance’ between map features
‘distance’ unit can be in measurement units or other units like travelling time, noise level, visibility distance etc.
requires 4 parameters
target location - schools, highways, etc.
‘distance’ units - meter, dB, ppm, etc.
function for calculation on distance, perimeter, travel time
location to be analysed

33. used to generate buffer zones
... NEIGHBOURHOOD
used to generate buffer zones
example: a 2km zone along a proposed transmission line alignment; zones exceeds 50dB around the airport
neighbourhood is most often complex and involves data from various layers. For example, more than 50dB from noisy roads AND more than 1km from factories AND 15 minutes walking time AND ...

34. Buffering a Point
eg. All area within one mile of a city R
Buffering a Line
eg. All areas within 100 meters
of a road
Buffering an Area
eg. All areas within 500 meters
of a wetlands area.

35. Buffering

36. Involves two or more data layers Produces new layers
OVERLAY
Involves two or more data layers
Produces new layers
Two types of overlay operation
arithmetic overlay
logical overlay
Arithmetic overlay involves mathematics operation such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, etc.

37. MAP ALGEBRA (MULTIPLICATION) OVERLAY BY MULTIPLICATION
DISTRICT
CROP AREA
OVERLAY
1 2
3 4
1 2 X 1 =
3 4 B B
OVERLAY BY MAXIMUM VALUE 3 3 4 4 2 2 4 3 4 1 + 5 5 5 = 5 5 5 2 4 6 4 1 1 4 4 6
RAINFALL : RAINFALL: RAINFALL:

38. vector data - operation based on the selected data only
... OVERLAY
vector data are sometimes more efficient than raster data if data are not dense.
vector data - operation based on the selected data only
raster data - operation on all cells - even null values

39. GIS Technology: Relationship between Land use and Crop Productivity
Soil Type +
Crops Production
(ton/ha)
Overlay Analysis
Overlay Result
GIS Technology: Relationship between Land use and Crop Productivity

40. Noise Zone Map Jalan Raja Uda Jalan Hamzah Jalan Datuk Malik
Jalan Abdul Aziz
Jalan Raja Alang
Noise Zone Map

41. Area Map For Areas Outside Sewerage Services
Sewerage pond
Jalan Raja Uda
Jalan Hamzah
Sewerage pond
Jalan Datuk Malik
Jalan Abdul Aziz
Jalan Raja Alang
Area Map For Areas Outside Sewerage Services

42. Industrial Buffer Zone Map
Jalan Raja Uda
Pan Malaysian
Plastic
Jalan Hamzah
Jalan Datuk Malik
Jalan Abdul Aziz
Jalan Raja Alang
Industrial Buffer Zone Map