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LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT
11 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT The Self, Identity, and Personality John W. Santrock
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The Self, Identity, and Personality
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Self-Understanding Self — All characteristics of a person
The Self Self-Understanding Self — All characteristics of a person Self-understanding, self-esteem, self-concept Identity — who a person is, representing a synthesis of self-understanding Personality — enduring personal characteristics of individuals
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The Self Self-Understanding Cognitive representation of the self, substance of self conceptions Visual self-recognition tests infants Young children perceive self as external characteristics Older children recognize difference between inner and outer states
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Development of Self-Understanding in Children
The Self Development of Self-Understanding in Children Infancy Self-recognition begins around 18 mos Early Childhood Conceive of self as body part, usually head; describe self in physical terms Middle/Late Childhood More complex self-understanding Internal characteristics Social aspects Social comparison
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Self-Recognition in Infancy
Fig. 11.1
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The Role of Perspective-Taking
The Self The Role of Perspective-Taking Perspective-taking — ability to assume another’s perspective and understand his or her thoughts and feelings Selman: 5 stages — age 3 to adolescence Affects peer status and quality of friendships
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Selman’s Stages of Perspective-Taking
Fig. 11.2
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Self-Understanding in Adolescence
The Self Self-Understanding in Adolescence Abstract and idealistic Self-conscious; preoccupied with self Fluctuating across situations Compare real and ideal selves Possible selves: what persons may be, would like to be, and are afraid of becoming Self-integration in sense of identity
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Changes in Self-Understanding in Adulthood
The Self Changes in Self-Understanding in Adulthood Self-Awareness Awareness of strengths and weaknesses Improves in young and middle adulthood Possible Selves Get fewer and more concrete with age Some revise throughout adulthood Life Review Some in middle age, common in older adults Evaluations of successes and failures
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Self-Esteem and Self-Concept
The Self Self-Esteem and Self-Concept Self-esteem Global evaluative dimension of the self Same as self-worth or image Self-concept Domain-specific evaluations of the self
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Issues with Self-Esteem
The Self Issues with Self-Esteem Modest correlations link self-esteem and school performance; links vary between adult job performance and self-esteem Self-esteem related to perceived physical appearance across life-span Depression lowers high self-esteem
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Issues with Self-Esteem
The Self Issues with Self-Esteem Persons with high self-esteem Increased happiness Have greater initiative Prone to both prosocial and antisocial actions Undeserved high self-esteem Narcissism: self-centered, self-concerned Conceited Lack of awareness linked to adjustment problems
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Self-Esteem in Childhood and Adolescence
The Self Self-Esteem in Childhood and Adolescence Accuracy of self-evaluations increases across the elementary school years Majority of adolescents have positive self-image cross-culturally Girls’ self-esteem is significantly lower than boys’ by middle school years
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Self-Esteem in Adulthood
The Self Self-Esteem in Adulthood Some researchers find drops in self-esteem in late adulthood; others don’t Older adults with positive self-esteem May not see losses as negatively Decrease in knowledge-related goals Increase in emotion-related goals Compare themselves to other older adults
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Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan
Prenatal Development Self-Esteem Across the Lifespan Fig. 11.4
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Increasing Self-Esteem
The Self Increasing Self-Esteem Identify causes of low self-esteem Provide/seek emotional support and social approval Develop self-confidence and initiative Achieve Develop coping skills
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The Self Self-Regulation Ability to control one’s behavior without having to rely on others for help Includes self-generation and cognitive monitoring of thoughts Self-regulation linked to higher achievement and satisfaction over the lifespan
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Self-Regulation in Infancy and Early Childhood
The Self Self-Regulation in Infancy and Early Childhood months Depend on caregivers for reminder signals about acceptable behaviors Begin to comply with the caregiver’s expectations in the absence of monitoring 2-3 years Learn to resist temptation and give themselves instructions that keep them focused Preschool
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Self-Regulation in Middle/Late Childhood and Adolescence
The Self Self-Regulation in Middle/Late Childhood and Adolescence Self-regulation increases from about or 6 years up to 7 or 8 years of age Across elementary school years, children increase beliefs that behavior is result of own effort and not luck From 8 to 14 years of age, children increase perception of self-responsibility for failure
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Selective Optimization with Compensation
The Self Selective Optimization with Compensation Successful self-regulation in aging linked to Selection: reduction in performance Optimization: continue practice, use of technology Compensation: concealment; offsetting or counterbalancing a deficiency
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Personal Control Primary control striving Secondary control striving
The Self Personal Control Primary control striving One’s efforts to change external world to fit needs and desires Attain personal goals, overcome obstacles Secondary control striving Targets one’s inner worlds: motivation, emotion, and mental representation
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The Self Changes In Primary and Secondary Control Strategies Across the Life Span Fig. 11.6
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Erikson’s Ideas on Identity
Identity versus identity confusion Adolescents examine who they are, what they are about, and where they are going in life Psychosocial moratorium Gap between childhood security and adult autonomy, part of adolescent identity exploration
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Identity’s Components
Achievement/intellectual identity Vocational/career identity Cultural/ethnic identity Relationship identity Religious identity Physical identity Interest Personality Sexual identity Political identity
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Contemporary Views of Identity
Gradual, lengthy process Identity formation neither begins nor ends with adolescence Appearance of attachment Development of a sense of self Emergence of independence in infancy Resolution does not mean lifetime stability
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Identity Identity Statuses According to Marcia: Individuals go through periods of Crisis: exploring alternatives during identity development Commitment: individuals show personal investment in what they are going to do
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Marcia’s Identity Statuses
Fig. 11.9
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Developmental Changes in Identity Status
Young adolescents primarily in statuses of diffusion, foreclosure, or moratorium Important for achieving positive identity Confidence in parental support Established sense of industry Able to adopt self-reflective stance of future
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Developmental Changes in Identity Status
Most important changes occur ages 18 to 25 “MAMA” cycle: pattern for positive identity moratorium • achievement • moratorium • achievement Family influences on identity development Individuality has two dimensions Connectedness has two dimensions
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Family Influences Ability to have and give point of view
Identity Family Influences Self-assertion Separateness Mutuality Permeability Ability to have and give point of view Openness to other’s views Individuality Use of communication patterns to express own individuality Connectedness Sensitivity to and respect for other views
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Culture and Ethnicity Erikson very sensitive to role of culture
Identity Culture and Ethnicity Erikson very sensitive to role of culture Ethnic minority groups struggle to blend into dominant culture and keep cultural identities Aware of Negative appraisals and stereotyping Restricted opportunities Conflicting values influencing life choices Two existing value systems
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Trait Theories and the Big Five Factors of Personality
Personality is broad dispositions or traits that tend to produce characteristic responses Big Five Factors of Personality theory Led to advancements in assessing personality Most believe personality is result of trait-situation interaction
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Big Five Factors of Personality
Fig
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Views On Adult Development
Personality Views On Adult Development Stage-Crisis View Levinson’s Seasons of a Man’s Life Stage and transitions occur in life span Tasks or crisis in each stage shape personality Levinson’s midlife crisis in 40s: try to cope with gap between past and future Vaillant’s Grant Study
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Levinson’s Seasons of Life
Personality Levinson’s Seasons of Life Era of late adulthood: 60 to ? Late Adult Transition: Age 60 to 65 Age 50 transition: 50 to 55 Culminating life structure for middle adulthood: 55 to 60 Entry life structure for middle adulthood: 45 to 50 Middle Adult Transition: Age 40 to 45 Early Adult Transition: Age 17 to 22 Age 30 transition: 28 to 33 Culminating life structure for early adulthood: 33 to 40 Entry life structure for early adulthood: 22 to 28
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Emotional Instability and Age
Personality Emotional Instability and Age Fig
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Personality Age and Well-Being Fig
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The Life-Events Approach
Personality The Life-Events Approach Now contemporary life-events approach; alternative to the stage approach How a life event influences individual’s development depends on: The life event Individual’s adaptation to the life event Life-stage context Sociohistorical context
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Personality Life Events Framework Fig
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Generativity versus Stagnation
Personality Generativity versus Stagnation Seventh stage in Erikson’s life-span theory Generativity Encompasses adults’ desire to leave legacy to next generation Middle-aged adults develop in number of ways Stagnation Also self-absorption, develops when one senses s/he has done nothing for next generation
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Changes In Generativity from the Thirties to the Fifties
Personality Changes In Generativity from the Thirties to the Fifties Fig
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Personality Stability and Change Many longitudinal studies have found evidence for both change and stability in personality in adulthood Neugarten’s Kansas City Study Costa and McCrae’s Baltimore Study Berkley Longitudinal Studies Helson’s Mills College Study Vaillant’s studies
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Stability and Change Cumulative Personality Model
With time and age, people become more adept at interacting with environment in ways that promote stability Overall, personality is affected by Social contexts New experiences Sociohistorical changes
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Openness to Experience, Age, and Culture
Personality Openness to Experience, Age, and Culture Fig
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Links Between Characteristics at Age 50 and Health and Happiness at Ages 75-80
Fig
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11 The End
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