1. Memory

2. Memory Memory is the ability to code, store and retrieve information
Procedural: how to ride a bike
Factual: definition of “learning”
Memory involves coding the input of the senses (visual, auditory)

3. Importance of Memory Memory is the most extraordinary phenomenon
Nearly all higher mental functions (speech, thinking, perceptions, moods, judgments) are based on phenomenon of memory
Stores events as video recordings along with associated feelings and emotions
Pleasant and unpleasant memories

4. Three Stages of Memory Human memory resembles a computer
It has three stages:
Encoding: Sensory information is received and coded or transferred into neural impulses which can be processed further or stored for later use.
Storage: the encoded information is stored in memory system. Some information is stored briefly and then discarded e.g. telephone number, others used frequently is stored on permanent basis

5. Retrieval: when we recall or bring a memory in consciousness, we have retrieved it. This process is called Memory Retrieval.

6. Three Types of Memory
Sensory Memory is a brief representation of a stimulus while being processed in the sensory system
Storage of sensory events such as sights, sounds and tastes

7. Short-Term Memory (STM) is working memory
Selective Attention: determine what information to send to short-term memories
Brief memory, temporary storehouse
Information is stored as images, sounds
Limited capacity (7 items)
Duration is about 30 seconds

8. Long-Term Memory
Permanent storehouse
LTM is large capacity and long duration
Information transferred from STM to LTM is coded into categories and stored in terms of meaning and importance

9. Overview of Memory Model

10. Varieties of LTM Psychologists distinguish between two types of LTM
Semantic memory refers to factual information, general and specific information
(What is the capital of Pakistan?)
Episodic memory refers to memory of personal events as to where and when an event happened
“I remember visiting the……………”
“My first day at college”

11. Overview of LTM

12. Organization of LTM
Items in LTM are organized in categories that form a hierarchy with multiple paths (direct and indirect) to each item
Sometimes the cues required to recall an item are not sufficient
Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person can’t easily recall the item, but shows some recall for its characteristics (“…it begins with the letter ….”)

13. Rehearsal
This process consists of keeping items of information in the center of attention by repeating them
If someone having good memory it is due to his ability and experience in rehearsing
Not only amount of rehearsal is important but also the ways in which information is rehearsed
Elaborative rehearsal: giving meaning, organization to the material being rehearsed

14. Memory Measures
Recognition is when a specific cue (face or name) is matched against LTM
Recall is when a general cue is used to search memory
e.g. define the term “personality”
Relearning refers to a situation in which a person learns material a second time. Memory is evident in savings of time to relearn the second time versus the first

15. Flashbulb Memories Memories with strong emotional attachment.
Where were you when you first heard:
That Benazir Bhutto had been killed?

16. Forgetting Forgetting refers to memory failure
Forgetting is the inability to recall previously learned information
Forgetting refers to memory failure
Forgetting rate is steep just after learning and then becomes a gradual loss of recall

17. Theories of Forgetting
Interference theory argues that learning new things interferes with what we learned earlier
Proactive interference: old information interferes with recall of new information
Retroactive interference: new information interferes with recall of old information
Decay theory: memory trace fades with time

18. Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of painful, unpleasant memories (protective memory loss)
Repression
Retrieval failure: the information is still within LTM, but cannot be recalled because the retrieval cue is absent

19. Amnesia Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain injury or by trauma
Retrograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information prior to a trauma
Anterograde amnesia refers to problems with recall of information after a trauma
Anterograde amnesia
Retrograde amnesia
Point of Trauma

20. Pathological Changes in Memory
MMSE
Amnestic disorders
Dementias
Alzheimer’s diseases

21. Anatomy of Memory
Two key parts of limbic system are essential in receiving new information and storing it:
Hippocampus
Amygdala

22. Anatomy of Memory Bilateral damage to the hippocampus
results in anterograde
amnesia

23. Memory Strategies
Feedback of Knowledge: feedback allows you to check effectiveness of learning
Attention
Recitation and Rehearsal: repetition of what you have learned

24. Organization and Categorization-chunks
North, man, blue, summer, girl, green, west, yellow, boy, east, woman
Chunking helps long term memory
Linking information meaningfully
Organizing ideas into hierarchies

25. Selection: careful and selective marking in your text book
Attach emotions, feelings: we hardly forget what is emotionally significant

26. Distributed practice refers to spacing learning periods in contrast to massed practice in which learning is “crammed” into a single session
Distributed practice leads to better retention
Sleep: sleep after the study is helpful and reduces the interference

27. Overlearning: memory is greatly improved when study is continued beyond bare mastery.
Review
Manage your time

28. What do we remember? Flanagan (1997) argues that we remember:
20% of what we read
30% of what we hear
40% of what we see
50% of what we say
60% of what we do
And
90% of what we read, hear, see, say and do.