1. Voting and Political Participation in Texas
CHAPTER 7
Voting and Political Participation in Texas

2. Texas Learning Outcomes
Identify the rights and responsibilities of citizens

3. Chapter Learning Objectives
Explain political participation
Discuss voter turnout in Texas, including citizens’ rights and responsibilities
Describe ways in which the state of Texas has, historically, restricted access to voting
Describe forms of political participation other than voting

4. Political Participation
Political participation: all forms of involvement citizens can have that are related to governance
Almost three-fourths of adults participate in some form; but more than one-fourth do not
Online ways to participate are on the rise

5. TABLE 7.1 Civil and Political Participation in America
Activity
Percentage of Adults Surveyed Who Participated During the Previous 12 Months
Took part in some sort of political activity in the context of a social networking site (e.g., Facebook/Twitter)
39%
Worked with fellow citizens to solve a problem in your community
35%
Attended a political meeting on local, town, or school affairs
22%
Signed a paper petition
Contact a national, state, or local government official in person, by phone call, or by letter about an issue
21%
Contributed money to a political candidate or party, or any other political organization or cause
16%
Been an active member of any group that tries to influence public policy or government, not including a political party
13%
Attended a political rally or speech
10%
Worked or volunteered for a political party or candidate 7%
Attended an organized protest of any kind 6%
Sent a letter to the editor of a newspaper or magazine 3%
Source: Pew Research Center’s Internet & American Life Project, Civic Engagement Tracking Survey Based on an adult sample (n = 2,253). Margin of error is +/− 2%. Available online at

6. Political Participation: Levels and Types
Participation can be conceptualized in terms of levels and types of activities
Inactives take no part
Voting specialists confine their efforts to voting
Parochial participants are active when an issue has a direct effect on them
Campaigners enjoy the nature of political campaigns
Communalists enjoy nonpartisan, noncontroversial community activity
Complete activists get involved in all levels and kinds

7. FIGURE 7.1 Types of Political Activists
SOURCE: Sidney Verba and Norman Nie, Participation in America: Political Democracy and Social Equality. (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987), 79.

8. Taking Personal Responsibility …
CORE OBJECTIVES
Taking Personal Responsibility …
What activities do you engage in that are related to governance?
Which forms of political participation do you think are the most effective?

9. Voting in Texas
One of the most common forms of participation is voting in elections
According to the U.S. Constitution, voting cannot be denied on the basis of race, color, sex, failure to pay a tax, or age (provided the voter is at least 18)
Poll tax: a tax citizens were required to pay each year to be eligible to vote
States still have considerable discretion in who is eligible and what election system will be used

10. Current Voting Requirements
Voters in Texas must be at least 18, citizens of the U.S., resident in the state, and registered to vote
Convicted felons and the “mentally incompetent” are excluded
Voter registration is the act of qualifying by formally enrolling on an official list
Voters must register at least 30 days before an election, either by paper form or when applying for or renewing a driver’s license
When registered, voters receive a voter registration card by mail; voters who move must re-register

11. Current Voting Requirements: Voting
On Election Day voters must present their government-issued photo ID
Individuals who have been unable to obtain one of the seven forms can sign a declaration that they had a “reasonable impediment” to obtaining one, then show an alternative form of identification
A provisional ballot may also be cast
Texas also allows early voting, in person or by mail
In absentee voting—early voting by mail—voters must request their mail-in ballot, and it must usually be received by 7 p.m. on the date of the election

12. Ongoing Controversies with Voting
Advocates of voter ID laws say they reduce voter fraud; opponents argue they restrict the right to vote
In 2011 when the voter ID law was passed, Texas was among the states required to obtain federal “preclearance” before the law could go into effect
The U.S. Justice Department denied preclearance on the basis that minority groups would be adversely affected
The law went into effect in 2013, however, when a section of the Voting Rights Act involved with preclearance was struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court

13. Ongoing Controversies with Voting 2
Legal challenges to the voter ID law have continued
There is also controversy over the “motor voter” law providing for voter registration when obtaining a driver’s license
Voters in 2015 complained their registration applications were not properly processed
A more recent lawsuit has been filed against the state, arguing that differences between online and in-person procedures constitute a violation of prospective voters’ rights

14. CORE OBJECTIVE
Thinking Critically …
How do you think the Texas voter ID law impacts voter turnout in Texas?
Where do you stand on the issue? Explain why you favor or oppose voter ID laws.

15. In Comparison with Other States
In comparison with other states, Texas is fairly demanding in terms of voting requirements
Most states imposes some restrictions on voting
In most, prospective voters must register by a certain deadline
Eleven states have no pre-election registration requirements and allow same-day registration, which research has shown results in greater turnout
All states provide paper registration forms, but 31 states also offer online voter registration
As of 2016, 34 states had adopted voter ID laws

16. Voter Turnout
There are several ways to calculate voter turnout—the proportion of people who vote in an election
Varying requirements make it difficult to compare turnout rates using the percentage of registered voters
Voting-age population (VAP) is the preferred measure, but it includes a fair number of people who meet the age requirement but are unable to register and vote
A third measure, voting-eligible population (VEP), is calculated by eliminating ineligible groups from VAP; but VEP is not universally available at this time
Voter turnout in the U.S. is lower than in most other industrialized nations

17. Voter Turnout in Texas In general, Texans are not avid voters
Texas consistently falls below the national average in terms of percentage of the VEP in elections of the past 30 years
Texas’s voter turnout also ranks at or near the bottom when compared to other states
Note that voter turnout is typically lower for midterm elections than in presidential election years
In Texas, as in other states, 2016 saw record-breaking turnout; but Texas’s turnout was still low in comparison with other states

18. TABLE 7.2 Comparison of Percentage of Registered, Voting-Age, and Voting-Eligible Voters Voting in Texas Elections, 1988–2016
Presidential Election Year
Percent of Registered Voters Who Voted
Percent of VAP Who Voted
VEP Highest office Turnout Rate
1988
66.2%
44.3%
50.1%
1992
72.9%
47.6%
54.2%
1996
53.2%
41.0%
46.5%
2000
51.8%
49.2%
2004
56.6%
46.1%
53.7%
2008
59.5%
45.6%
54.1%
2012
58.6%
43.7%
49.7%
2016
59.4%
51.1%
Source: Texas Secretary of State, Turnout and Voter Registration Figures (1970–current). Michael P. McDonald (2015), “1980–2014 November General Election,” and (2016), “2016 November General Election Turnout Rates,” United States Election Project. (See
Congressional/Statewide Election Year
Percent of Registered Voters Who Voted
Percent of VAP Who Voted
VEP Highest office Turnout Rate
1990
50.6%
31.1%
35.3%
1994
50.9%
33.6%
37.5%
1998
32.4%
26.5%
29.9%
2002
36.2%
29.4%
34.2%
2006
26.4%
30.9%
2010
38.0%
27.0%
32.1%
2014
33.7%
25.0%
28.3%

19. TABLE 7.3 Texas Rank as a Percentage of Voting-Eligible Population in National Elections, 1988–2016
Presidential Election Year
Texas Rank
National Turnout
Texas Turnout
1988 37
52.8%
50.1%
1992 40
58.1%
54.2%
1996 43
51.7%
46.5%
2000 41
49.2%
2004 48
60.1%
53.7%
2008
61.6%
54.1%
2012 47
58.2%
49.7%
2016
58.8%
51.1%
Source: Michael P. McDonald (2015), “1980–2014 November General Election,” and (2016) “2016 November General Election Turnout Rates,” United States Election Project. (See
Congressional/Statewide Election Only Year
Texas Rank
National Turnout
Texas Turnout
1990 41
38.4%
35.3%
1994 42
41.1%
37.5%
1998 47
38.1%
29.9%
2002 46
39.5%
34.2%
2006 48
40.4%
30.9%
2010 50
41.0%
32.1%
2014
36.0%
28.3%

20. FIGURE 7.2 Percentage of Eligible Voters Voting in 2014 General Election
SOURCE: Michael P. McDonald (2015), “2014 November General Election Turnout Rates,” United States Elections Project,

21. Explaining Voter Turnout
A significant portion of Texas’s population is not eligible to vote
Including ineligible groups—namely, noncitizens and convicted felons—in Texas’s VAP negatively exaggerates commonly cited turnout levels
Even using VEP, however, voter participation is low
The political culture discourages participation
There is a legacy of restricted access to the ballot
Other social, economic, and political factors also play a role

22. The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas
Like other southern states, Texas has a history of restrictive laws that are in keeping with its traditionalistic political culture
In 1902 the Texas legislature adopted a poll tax, which was in effect for about 60 years
After the poll tax was invalidated entirely in 1966, the number of registered voters increased dramatically

23. FIGURE 7.3 Original Poll Tax Receipt
© Jerry Caywood

24. The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas 2
Texas still retained a restrictive annual registration system, requiring individuals to register at the courthouse between October 1 and January 31
When a 1971 court decision prohibited annual registration systems, Texas adopted a progressive permanent registration system
In the first year, voter registration increased yet again

25. The Legacy of Restricted Ballot Access in Texas 3
Another past practice of many southern states was the white primary
In Texas from 1923 to 1945, despite numerous Supreme Court challenges, African Americans were prohibited from the Democratic Party primaries
All-white primaries ended with Smith v. Allwright, 1944
As in many other states, property ownership was also used to restrict the right to vote, especially in local election
Until the Nineteenth Amendment, women were also disenfranchised in Texas

26. National Anti-Suffrage Association Headquarters, 1911
Source: Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ ]

27. Social and Economic Factors
The residual effect of restrictive practices may decline in time, but other factors influence turnout
Rates of participation are affected by socioeconomic factors, such as educational level, family income, and minority status
Age also contributes, with young voters less likely to vote than older adults
Race is another factor: minority groups register and vote in smaller proportions than non-Hispanic whites
2008, 2010, and 2012 were notable exceptions

28. FIGURE 7.4 Voter Turnout in Texas in the 2012 Presidential Election, by Race
© Ryan McVay/Getty Images RF

29. TABLE 7.4 Registration and Voter Participation by Race and Sex in Texas, 2012
Category
Total Voting Age Population (VAP)
Total Citizen Population
Total Registered
Percent Registered (Total)
Percent Registered (Citizen)
Total Voted
Percent Voted (Total)
Percent Voted (Citizen)
Total
18,642
16,062
10,749
57.7%
66.9%
8,643
46.4%
53.8%
Male
9,046
7,719
4,977
55.0%
64.5%
3,925
43.4%
50.8%
Female
9,596
8,344
5,772
60.1%
69.2%
4,719
49.2%
56.6%
White alone
15,029
12,989
57.5%
66.5%
6,900
45.9%
53.1%
White non-Hispanic alone
8,512
8,360
6,101
71.7%
73.0%
5,087
59.8%
60.9%
Black alone
2,213
2,144
1,569
70.9%
73.2%
1,352
61.1%
63.1%
Asian alone
900
506
299
33.2%
59.1%
214
23.8%
42.4%
Hispanic (of any race)
6,831
4,867
2,652
38.8%
54.5%
1,890
27.7%
White alone or in combination
15,200
13,144
8,749
57.6%
66.6%
6,968
45.8%
53.0%
Black alone or in combination
2,293
2,207
1,606
70.0%
72.8%
1,380
60.2%
62.5%
Asian alone or in combination
909
515
305
33.5%
59.2%
220
24.2%
42.8%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau. Voting and Registration in the Election of November 2012 Detailed Tables. Table 4b. Reported Voting and Registration by Sex, Race and Hispanic Origin, for States: November
VAP = Population 18 years and older, in thousands.

30. Low Voter Turnout among Hispanics
FOCUS ON
Low Voter Turnout among Hispanics
The Hispanic share of the national vote is beginning to expand, a trend mirrored in Texas
Although the Hispanic population continues to grow, Hispanics have played a smaller role in politics
About half of all Hispanics nationwide are not eligible to vote due to age or lack of citizenship
Only about half of those who are eligible turn out to vote
Several socioeconomic factors contribute, including generally lower education levels and incomes
Lower political interest may also contribute—but this factor may be undergoing significant change

31. Felony Conviction and Voting
Maine and Vermont are the only states that allow felons to vote
Texas prohibits persons convicted of a felony, including those on probation or parole, from voting
Felons may register, however, after they have served out their sentence and completed their time on probation and parole
In 2014 there were 486,110 felons who could not vote in Texas, nearly twice the national average

32. Being Socially Responsible …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Being Socially Responsible …
Considering the discussion of the socioeconomic factors that affect voter turnout, identify effective ways to increase civic knowledge in culturally diverse communities.

33. Party Competition
Lower voter turnout in Texas can also be explained by the lack of party competition
Texans elected Republicans to all statewide offices from 2002 to 2014 and has been solidly Republican in U.S. presidential elections
Party competition and closeness of elections are important factors in voter turnout, with voters more likely to believe their votes will actually “count”
In competitive districts, both parties have a big incentive to increase voter turnout

34. Other Factors Affecting Voter Turnout
The timing of an election can be significant
Voter turnout is highest in November presidential elections
In Texas, local elections are generally not held in conjunction with general elections; they are commonly held in May
Local elections also receive less attention, are not perceived as being important, and are often not contested
The day of the week is also important (Tuesday is most common), as is the fact that elections are generally held on a single day, typically for just 12 hours

35. Rationalist Explanations for Low Voter Turnout
Some voters find voting irrational
A single vote is unlikely to be the “deciding” vote in large-scale elections
The act of voting is not all that valuable relative to the costs, especially in terms of one’s time
Some people may not vote because they are satisfied with—or alienated from—the political system
Finally, some may be principled nonvoters who do not want to give legitimacy to what they see as an illegitimate system

36. Communicating Effectively …
CORE OBJECTIVE
Communicating Effectively …
Write a one-page summary of the rationalist explanations for low voter turnout.

37. Other Forms of Political Participation
People participate in many other ways
Types and extent of participation vary widely
One can be “involved” intensely by becoming a candidate; or superficially by signing a petition
Thanks to the Internet, donating to a campaign has become one of the easiest forms of participation
Participation requires free time, expendable income, and political interest
Declining civic involvement may contribute to a loss of “social capital”—the sense of shared purpose and values that social connection promotes

38. TABLE 7.5 Popular Forms of Political Participation in Texas
“Please think back over the past year and indicate if you have done any of the following.”
Political Activity %
Voted in an election
80%
Encouraged others to vote for a particular candidate
51%
Publicly supported a political candidate (e.g., bumper sticker)
35%
Forwarded an from a political party, candidate, or interest group
Contacted an elected official to express an opinion
30%
Donated money to a political candidate
22%
Joined an online social network group supporting a political candidate
20%
Attended a political rally, protest, or event
13%
Volunteered for a political campaign 9%
Source: University of Texas at Austin Department of Government, N = 800 Adults, Feb 24–Mar 6, 2009.

39. Volunteers at “Battleground Texas” campaign headquarters call voters on Election Day (left); and Tea Party activists head to a rally at the Texas State Capitol (right).
© Tamir Kalifa.

40. Conclusion
Texas has chronically low levels of voter turnout and participation in the political process in general
Many factors influence participation
Texas has relatively strict requirements for voting; and Texas, along with other southern states, has a legacy of restricting access to the ballot
The currently low levels of participation are consistent with the state’s traditionalistic political culture

41. Summary Explain political participation
Political participation refers to all the ways citizens can be involved in governance. Voting is the most obvious way, but not the only way.
Discuss voter turnout in Texas, including citizens’ rights and responsibilities
Voter turnout is the proportion of people who cast ballots in an election. Texas has low voter turnout. Any individual in Texas who is at least 18 years of age, a U.S. citizen, and a resident of the state may vote; but they must have registered 30 days before an election and must provide identification.

42. Summary 2
Describe ways in which the state of Texas has, historically, restricted access to voting
In the past, Texas has restricted access by requiring a poll tax be paid in order to be eligible to vote; by requiring voters to reregister every year; and through the white primary, which prohibited African Americans from participating.
Describe forms of political participation other than voting
Other forms of participation include donating money or volunteering, supporting an advocacy group, contacting an elected official, attending a rally or protest, running for public office, signing a petition, or writing a letter to the editor.