1. PARAGRAPHS
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition

2. CHECKLIST FOR REVISING PARAGRAPHS
Is the paragraph unified? Does it adhere to one general idea that is either stated in a topic sentence or otherwise apparent?
Is the paragraph coherent? Do the sentences follow a clear sequence? Are the sentences linked as needed by parallelism, repetition, or restatement, pronouns, consistency, and transitional expressions?
Is the paragraph developed? Is the general idea of the paragraph well supported with specific evidence such as details, facts, examples, and reasons?
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.1

3. ACHIEVING PARAGRAPH COHERENCE
Organize effectively.
Use parallel structure.
Repeat or restate words and word groups.
Use pronouns.
Be consistent in nouns, pronouns, and verbs.
Use transitional expressions.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.2

4. SOME STRATEGIES FOR OPENING PARAGRAPHS
Ask a question.
Relate an incident.
Use a vivid quotation.
Offer a surprising statistic or other fact.
State an opinion related to your thesis.
Outline the argument your thesis refutes.
Provide background.
Create a visual image that represents your subject.
Make a historical comparison or contrast.
Outline a problem or dilemma.
Define a word central to your subject.
In some business or technical writing, summarize your paper.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.3

5. OPENINGS TO AVOID
A vague generality or truth, such as “Throughout history . . .”
A flat announcement, such as “The purpose of this essay . . .”
A reference to the essay’s title, such as “This is a big problem.”
A dictionary definition, such as “According to Webster . . .”
An apology, such as “I’m not sure if I’m right . . .”
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.4

6. SOME STRATEGIES FOR CLOSING PARAGRAPHS
Strike a note of hope or despair.
Give a symbolic or powerful fact or other detail.
Give an especially compelling example.
Create a visual image that represents your subject.
Use a quotation.
Recommend a course of action.
Summarize the paper.
Echo the approach of the introduction.
Restate your thesis and reflect on its implications.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.5

7. CLOSINGS TO AVOID A restatement of the introduction
Don’t simply replay your introduction.
A new direction
Don’t introduce a subject different from the one your essay has been about.
A sweeping generalization
Don’t conclude more than you reasonably can from the evidence you have presented.
An apology
Don’t cast doubt on your essay.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.6

8. EXERCISE Eliminating inconsistencies in paragraphs
Identify the inconsistencies and revise the paragraph below to give it coherence.
The Hopi tihu, or kachina likeness, is often called a “doll,” but its owner, usually a girl or woman, does not regard them as a plaything. Instead, you treated them as a valued possession and hung them out of the way on a wall. For its owner the tihu represents a connection with the kachina’s spirit. They are considered part of the kachina, carrying a portion of the kachina’s power.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.7a

9. ANSWERS TO EXERCISE
The Hopi tihu, or kachina likeness, is often called a “doll,” but its owner, usually a girl or woman, does not regard it as a plaything. Instead, she treats it as a valued possession and hangs it out of the way on a wall. For its owner the tihu represents a connection with the kachina’s spirit. It is considered part of the kachina, carrying a portion of the kachina’s power.
Copyright © 1995–2004 by Pearson Education, publishing as Longman Publishers
Fowler/Aaron, The Little, Brown Handbook, Ninth Edition
4.7b