1. Bronchiectasis DR.AYSER HAMEED LEC.4

2. Bronchiectasis:
Is the permanent dilation of bronchi and bronchioles caused by destruction of the muscle and elastic supporting tissue, resulting from or associated with chronic necrotizing infections.
It is not a primary disease but rather is secondary to persisting infection or obstruction caused by a variety of conditions.
Predispose conditions to Bronchiectasis include the following:
Bronchial obstruction. Common causes are tumors, foreign bodies, and occasionally impaction of mucus.

3. 2. Congenital or hereditary conditions: are include
In cystic fibrosis: viscid mucus…….. obstruction & pulmonary infection……..bronchiectasis.
In immunodeficiency states e.g. immunoglobulin deficiencies…….repeated bacterial infections…..bronchiectasis.
Kartagener syndrome: an autosomal recessive disorder, develop impair mucociliary clearance in the airways & reduce mobility of spermatozoa leading to persistent infections…… bronchiectasis, and sterility in male.

4. 3. Necrotizing or suppurative, pneumonia:
Staphylococcus aureus or Klebsiella spp.
Childhood pneumonias that complicated measles, whooping cough, and influenza.
Post-tubercular Bronchiectasis.

5. Pathogenesis. Two processes are critical in the pathogenesis of bronchiectasis:
(1) obstruction.
(2) chronic persistent infection. Either of these two processes may come first.
Pulmonary obstruction (bronchogenic carcinoma or a foreign body)…….. impairs clearance of secretions……….. superimposed infection……….inflammatory damage to the bronchial wall & irreversible dilation.
Persistent necrotizing inflammation in the bronchi or bronchioles may cause obstructive secretions & inflammation…….wall destruction & fibrosis.

6. usually mixed flora can be cultured from the involved bronchi, including staphylococci, streptococci, Pneumococci, enteric organisms, anaerobic and Haemophilus influenzae and Pseudomonas aeruginosa in children.
MORPHOLOGY:
Gross:
Site: lower lobes, bilaterally .
Bronchiectasis due to tumors or aspiration of foreign bodies localized to a single segment of the lungs.
The affected airways are dilated (cylindroid, fusiform or saccular distention).

7. Mic:
Intense acute and chronic inflammatory exudate within the walls of the bronchi and bronchioles (in severe cases).
Desquamation of lining epithelium cause extensive areas of ulceration.
Fibrosis of the bronchial and bronchiolar walls in more chronic cases.
The necrosis destroys the bronchial or bronchiolar walls and forms a lung abscess.
Necrosis of the cartilage.
Pseudo-stratification of the columnar cells or squamous metaplasia.

8. Bronchiectasis
Extensive bilateral bronchiectasis; the massively dilated bronchi extend almost to the pleura. Widespread bronchiectasis is typical for patients with cystic fibrosis who have recurrent infections and obstruction of airways by mucus throughout the lungs.

9. Bronchiectasis
Cross-section of lung demonstrating dilated bronchi extending almost to the pleura.

10. Segmental Bronchiectasis
Segmental distribution of bronchiectasis. The bronchi are dilated into cavities. The dilated bronchi are filled with gelatinous inspissated mucus.

11. Bronchiectasis

12. Bronchiectasis
The mid lower portion of this photomicrograph demonstrates a dilated bronchus in which the mucosa and wall is not clearly seen because of the necrotizing inflammation with destruction.

13. Clinical Course.
Severe, persistent productive cough, offensive, sputum (frank hemoptysis). Clubbing of the fingers may develop.
Symptoms usually precipitated by upper respiratory tract infections.
Complications:
Obstructive ventilatory defects (respiratory failure).
pulmonary hypertension.
Cor pulmonale.
Metastatic brain abscesses.
Reactive Amyloidosis.
Malignancy of lungs.

14. Restrictive Lung Diseases:
Are characterized by reduced compliance (i.e. more pressure is required to expand the lungs because they are stiff).
Two general features of restrictive pulmonary diseases:-
1. Initiating injury affects either endothelial or alveolar or both; with chronicity, injurious changes are restricted to Interstitium (interstitial lung disease).
2. Interstitial fibrosis produces a "stiff lung" which in turn reduces lung compliance…….(dyspnea)……. Hypoxia.

15. Types of Restrictive lung disease can be either: (1) Acute, (pulmonary edema, often with accompanying inflammation). (2) Chronic (chronic inflammation and fibrosis). ACUTE RESTRICTIVE LUNG DISEASES Acute Lung Injury and Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome: defined by:- (1) Acute onset of dyspnea. (2) Hypoxemia. (3) Development of bilateral pulmonary infiltrates on radiographs. (4) Absence of clinical evidence of primary left-sided heart failure. Represent the most common cause of non cardiogenic pulmonary edema.

16. Causes:
1.Direct Lung Injury:
Common Causes:
Pneumonia.
Aspiration of gastric contents.
Uncommon Causes
Pulmonary contusion.
Fat embolism.
Near-drowning.
Inhalational injury
Post-lung transplantation reperfusion injury.

17. 2. Indirect Lung Injury
Common Causes:-
Sepsis.
severe trauma with shock.
Uncommon causes:-
Cardiopulmonary bypass.
Acute pancreatitis.
Drug overdose.
Transfusion of blood products.
Uremia.

18. Pathogenesis:
The alveolar capillary membrane is formed by two separate barriers-the microvascular endothelium and the alveolar epithelium.
In ALI and ARDS the integrity of this barrier is compromised by either endothelial or epithelial injury or more commonly, both.
Alveolar capillary membrane injury…………..widespread surfactant abnormalities caused by damage to type II pnumocytes.

19. Recent work suggests that lung injury is caused by an imbalance of pro -inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine by (unknown mechanism; could be due to secretion of interleukins by alveolar macrophages…….. attract & activate neutrophils to secrete proteases & oxidants……….active tissue damage).

20. MORPHOLOGY:
Gross:
The lungs resemble the liver; they are dark red, firm, airless.
Microscopic:
The most characteristic finding, however, is hyaline membranes formation, particularly lining the distended alveolar ducts such membranes consist of protein-rich edema fluid admixed with remnants of necrotic epithelial cells.

21. Reparative phenomenon…
Reparative phenomenon….. Proliferation of fibroblasts & hyperplasia of pnumocytes type II…….diffuse interstitial fibrosis interspersed with dilated and distorted airspaces (honeycomb lung).
Clinically :
Dyspnea.
Tachypnea.
Increasing cyanosis.
 End up with RESPIRATORY FAILURE.

22. ARDS
A, Diffuse alveolar damage in ARDS. Some alveoli are collapsed; others are distended. Many are lined by bright pink hyaline membranes (arrows).
B, In the healing stage there is resorption of hyaline membranes with thickened alveolar septa containing inflammatory cells, fibroblasts, and collagen. Numerous regenerating type II pneumocytes are seen at this stage (arrows).

23. Hyaline membrane disease (Acute lung injury)

24. Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis:
Known as cryptogenic fibrosing alveolitis which refers to a pulmonary disorder of unknown etiology characterized histologically by diffuse interstitial fibrosis, which in advanced cases results in severe hypoxemia and cyanosis, asbestosis, the connective tissue diseases SHOULD BE EXCLUDED.
Males older than 60 years.

25. Pathogenesis:
1. Persistence of the injurious agent……..cellular interactions involving lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, and alveolar epithelial cells lead to proliferation of fibroblasts and progressive interstitial fibrosis.
2. Immune mechanisms: (circulating immune complexes)…… activate alveolar macrophages & T-cells.

26. MORPHOLOGY:
Fibrosis & pneumonitis (interstitial pneumonia).
The hallmark of interstitial fibrosis is at low power shows alternating areas of interstitial inflammation, with areas of normal lung & fibrosis.
honeycomb lung.

27. Honeycomb lung

28. HONEYCOMB LUNG
The lung has a honeycomb appearance grossly. There is prominent interstitial fibrosis. Etiologies include interstitial pneumonitis associated with collagen vascular diseases, asbestosis, berylliosis, sarcoidosis, recurrent aspiration, allergic alveolitis, and idiopathic.

29. Sarcoidosis:
Multi systemic disease of unknown etiology characterized by non caseating granulomas in many tissues and organs.
Mycobacterial or fungal infections and berylliosis, sometimes also produce noncaseating granulomas; therefore, the histologic diagnosis of sarcoidosis is one of exclusion.
Bilateral hilar lymphadenopathy or lung involvement (or both), visible on chest radiographs, is the major presenting manifestation in most cases.
Eye and skin involvement each occur in about 25% of cases may be the presenting feature of the disease.

30. Epidemiology.
Affecting both sexes and all races and age (mainly adults younger than 40 years).
A high incidence has been noted in the Danish and Swedish population and among US blacks.
Sarcoidosis is one of the few pulmonary diseases with a higher prevalence among nonsmokers

31. Etiology and Pathogenesis.
Etiology mainly unknown (suggestion of genetic causes, environmental agents & immunologic abnormalities).
MORPHOLOGY:
The hallmark of Sarcoidosis is non caseating granuloma that involve many organs.
Granulomas consists of collection of epithelioid cells surrounding by a rim of lymphocytes (CD4 + T-cells) & sometimes intermixed with multinucleated giant cells, thin layer of fibroblasts (in advanced cases result in formation of scar tissue).

32. Two other microscopic features are sometimes seen in the granulomas:
1) Schaumann bodies, laminated concretions composed of calcium and proteins.
(2) asteroid bodies, stellate inclusions enclosed within giant cells (not diagnostic).
Caseation necrosis typical of tuberculosis is absent.
Intrathoracic hilar and paratracheal lymph nodes are enlarged in 75% to 90% of patients (non matted).
The lungs are involved in 90% of patients.
The granulomas predominantly involve the Interstitium rather than air spaces……… later result in honeycomb lung…….. pulmonary hypertension & cor pulomanle.

33. Sarcoidosis lung
Rt. Low poer: non caseating granulomas are present in the lung parenchyma. The inciting agent for this granulomatous disease is unknown - speculation ranges from an unidentified microorganism to tree pollen!. Sarcoidosis typically presents with non-caseating granulomas.
Lt. Medium power: there is interstitial non-caseating granulomatous inflammation. Giant cells and histiocytes form nodular aggregates without necrosis

34. Sarcoidosis
High power: characteristic sarcoid noncaseating granulomas in lung with many giant cells.

35. Schumann bodies

36. Asteroid body