1. Lukes’ Theories on Power
Starter:
Give examples of two different theories of how Earth was created.

2. Describe Steven Lukes’ theory on power.
What you will learn…
Success Criteria – I can…
Describe Steven Lukes’ theory on power.
Outline the theories and provide relevant examples.

3. Steven Lukes on Power (1974)
Steven Lukes argued that power had three ‘faces’ or ‘dimensions’.
Decision making
Non decision making (Agenda Setting)
Shaping Desires (Secretive or Insidious face)

4. 1. Decision Making
Lukes’ first face of power is its ‘open face’, or power that is transparent and visible to citizens
It is the power to make and implement decisions.
For example, when the government proposes to introduce a new law they produce a bill which will be debated in the Houses of Parliament, discussed in the media and attract the attention of pressure groups, which might, in turn lobby MPs.
Eventually the bill may pass through the decision-making process and become law. Usually we can identify where the power lies and see the process taking place
In a modern democracy this would be viewed as the introduction of new laws through Parliament.
For example when the UK government proposes a law they produce a bill which will debated in the House of Commons, similarly in the USA a bill will pass through both the House of Representatives and the Senate.
This is seen as transparent and democratic - most people accept the decision due to the democratic nature of the process

5. Example – Decision Making

6. 2.Non-Decision Making (agenda setting)
The ‘Secretive Face’
Having the power to set agendas and therefore limit what is being discussed – certain issues are stopped by the powerful ‘elite’ never reaching the point where decisions are made.
The powerful can ignore the demands of the weak by delay, avoidance, or mass bureaucracy, or inconclusive inquiries.
Issues are avoided that the powerful anticipate will cause problems.
Analysis – This can be seen as a very secretive form of power which is not democratic or transparent as often citizens are not aware it is taking place or unable to influence the political agenda. This type of power is only exercised behind ‘closed doors’.

7. In Focus: Secret Face
Scottish Devolution was strongly opposed by Thatcher and the Conservatives from so it was never discussed.
The Labour government elected in May 1997 had made devolution a prominent part of its election manifesto in Scotland and subsequently held a referendum on the issues.
The Scottish National Party (SNP), whose aim was independence wanted a question in the referendum on independence as well as devolution, but the Labour government did not allow it as it was not part of their political agenda.
Similarly, Thatcher’s Conservatives denied the link between poor health and poverty so policies were never enacted to tackle this.
Despite evidence of this link in the Labour produced Black Report of 1980.

8. 3. Manipulating Desires
Lukes suggests that power can go further, and its third face is one in which power is exercised through manipulation.
His argument is that people in power can persuade us that the decisions being made are in our best interests and what we want.
For example, some feminists would claim that women are persuaded that being a housewife and mother is in the best role for women in our society.
In reality, other feminists would argue, women who occupy this role are being exploited by men for the benefit of men.
It can be argued that this is the most insidious (SUBTLE BUT HARMFUL) form of power because citizens are manipulated into believing that the government are acting in their best interests and often citizens are unaware that their desires are being shaped by those in power. This shows this is another very ‘secretive’ or ‘hidden’ form of power.

9. In Focus: Power as thought control
Tony Blair and Iraq war (WMDs).
For example, Tony Blair claimed that there was strong evidence that Iraq under Saddam Hussein had Weapons of Mass Destruction.
This was used to justify the invasion of Iraq in 2003but once the invasion had taken place it was revealed that this was not the case and lead to claims that that the evidence had been manipulated by the Prime Minister in order to manipulate public opinion.

10. Summary points
Lukes’ first face of power: the open face of power, where the decision-making process is considered to be relatively transparent (we can see it)
Lukes’ second face of power: the secretive face of power, in which the political agenda is set behind closed doors (it is hidden from us)
Lukes’ third face of power: evident where power is the ability to manipulate the opinions of others in order to persuade them that what is being proposed is desirable. (we are persuaded we want something)

11. Analyse the concept of power with reference to the ideas of Steven Lukes. (12) 2015 H Politics Paper

12. 12 mark Responses Analyse… or Evaluate… or Compare
Component
Marks
Knowledge
i.e. description, explanation, example 8
Analysis & Evaluation
It can be argued that…
It is clear that…
However… 4

14. Analyse the concept of power with reference to the ideas of Steven Lukes. (12)
Power as the ability to get someone to do something, which they would not have done otherwise through the use of threats, sanctions, manipulation or rewards.
Lukes’ first face of power: the open face of power, where the decision-making process is considered to be relatively transparent.
Lukes’ second face of power: the secretive face of power, in which the political agenda is set behind closed doors.
Lukes’ third face of power: evident where power is the ability to manipulate the opinions of others in order to persuade them that what is being proposed is desirable.

15. Intro – Good Practice & helpful for structure
Background & Factors you will discuss. It is often argued that all politics is about Power; who has it and how much power they have. (background) Steven Lukes’ theory of power consisted of ‘Three Faces of Power’; Decision Making, Agenda Setting and Shaping Desires. (factors)

16. Para 1 – Decision Making
The first and most obvious face of power is the ‘open face’ of power or Decision Making. (topic sentence) In a modern democracy like the UK, this would consist of the introduction of new laws through parliament. When the UK government proposes a law they produce a bill which will debated in the House of Commons, similarly in the USA a bill will pass through both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In a pluralist democracy, the bill is scrutinised by the media, pressure groups and committees before becoming a law. (K - description) An example of this would be the Marriage of Same Sex Couples Act in 2013 which had several readings in Parliament, was voted on and scrutinised by committees and pressure groups before being passed as a law. (K - example) It can be argued that this ‘open face’ of power is the most democratic and transparent as citizens can see the decision making process for themselves; therefore most citizens accept the decision due to the democratic nature of the process. (analysis)

17. Para 2 – Agenda Setting
The second and more ‘secretive’ face of power is… (topic sentence) This can be described as…(K – description – how does it work?) An example of this would be (K – example – Tories % Devolution or Thatcher & Poverty) It can be argued that (analysis – why good/ bad? Is it Democratic, transparent etc?)

18. Para 3 – Shaping Desires
The third and most ‘insidious’ face of power is… (topic sentence) This can be described as…(K – description – how does it work?) An example of this would be (K – Blair & WMD) It can be argued that (analysis – why good/ bad? Is it Democratic, transparent etc.?)

19. How to Analyse Links between different ideas…
This links with the view of…
Similarities and contradictions
This is similar to because…/ This goes against because…
Different views/interpretations
Some would argue that this means …
Possible consequences/implications
As a consequence of this…
The relative importance of components
Arguably this is relevant/ important because…

20. The first and perhaps most obvious is the open face of power
The first and perhaps most obvious is the open face of power. For Lukes, this means that power can be seen and is visible. In a modern democracy this would be viewed as the introduction of new laws through Parliament. For example when the UK the government proposes a law they produce a bill which will debated in the House of Commons, similarly in the USA a bill will pass through both the House of Representatives and the Senate. In a pluralist democracy, the power is open as media and pressure groups may also comment on the passage of bill and highlight areas for change. In the Scottish Parliament the legislative procedure is very open as there is the committee systems in place to scrutinise legislation. The Scottish Parliament has passed a variety of legislation to solve issues in Scottish society, notably the Smoking Ban which prevented people from smoking in public places in order to improve health.
Clearly Luke’s open face of power is relevant in a modern democracy as citizens can view how laws are made and can see where the power lies. Furthermore, we could argue that this is a fair usage of power because government are able to make changes to improve the lives of people in their country, as seen with the smoking ban.

21. The third face of power is defined by Lukes as the ability to shape desires. This form of power is the ability to alter what someone thinks they want or need that may actually go against their best interests . Lukes identified this as the most insidious face of power, with those in power being able to manipulate the rest of society into believing they are acting in their best interests. For example, Tony Blair claimed that there was strong evidence that Iraq under Saddam Hussein had Weapons of Mass Destruction. This was used to justify the invasion of Iraq but once the invasion had taken place it was revealed that this was not the case and lead to claims that that the evidence had been manipulated by the Prime Minister in order to manipulate public opinion. 3 marks

22. Add your analysis
Therefore we could argue that the third face of power is used today by lots of politicians. It is quite different from the first face of power as the public may not know when they are being manipulated… and it could lead to Governments making decisions that are not best for the country.