1. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Exploring the Intersection
between Critical Thinking
and Cognitive Therapy
UWSP College of Letters and Science
Community/Campus Lecture Series
March 26, 2009
Dona Warren
Department of Philosophy

2. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Cognitive Therapy
By thinking
better…
Circumstances and Events
Thought
we can feel
better…
Emotion
Behavior
and act
better.

3. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Cognitive Therapy
“Psychological Problems … may result from commonplace processes such as faulty learning, making incorrect inferences on the basis of inadequate or incorrect information, and not distinguishing adequately between imagination and reality. Moreover, thinking can be unrealistic because it is derived from erroneous premises…” (Beck, Cognitive Therapy, pp )
“The formula for treatment may be stated in simple terms: The therapist helps the patient to identify his warped thinking and to learn more realistic ways to formulate his experiences.” (Beck, Cognitive Therapy, pp )

4. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Cognitive Therapy
What are you feeling?
Better feeling
Empirical
Issues
(Psychology)
Better thoughts
What are you thinking?
Non-empirical Issues
(Philosophy)
What are some better ways to think?
Should you think that way?
If not

5. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Philosophy
Philosophy is the activity of considering questions that can't be answered empirically and addressing them by thinking rationally.
Can belief in God be reconciled with the acknowledgment of suffering?
What, if anything, makes some actions right and others wrong?
What, if anything, makes some beliefs better than others?
Critical Thinking

6. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Reasons for Belief
Causal Reason
Doesn’t try to provide reason to think that the belief is true
We should aspire to have true beliefs
because my parents raised with me a high regard for truth.

7. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Reasons for Belief
Justifying Reason
Does try to provide reason to think that the belief is true
An argument is a unit of reasoning that attempts to establish that one idea is true by citing other ideas as evidence.
We should aspire to have true beliefs
because truth is an intrinsic good and is necessary for all other goods.

8. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
An Argument
We should aspire to have true beliefs. For one thing, truth is an intrinsic good, an end in itself. For another thing, in order to obtain any other good thing we need to have truth beliefs about how to get it. This shows that having truth beliefs is necessary to obtaining any other good.

9. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
An Argument
In order to obtain any other good thing, we need to have true beliefs about how to get it.
Premises
Subconclusion
Inferences
Truth is an intrinsic good, valuable as an end in itself.
Having true beliefs is necessary to obtaining any other good.
Independent Reasons / Lines of Reasoning
We should aspire to have true beliefs.
Ultimate Conclusion

10. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
An Argument
We should aspire to have useful beliefs, not true ones. First, for all we know we could be hallucinating all the time. Consequently, truth about most matters might be fundamentally unobtainable. Obviously, it’s silly to aspire to something that might be unobtainable. Second, false beliefs can adequately fulfill the purpose of belief because beliefs are supposed to help us avoid pain and seek pleasure and beliefs can do that even if they’re false.

11. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
An Argument
Dependent Reasons
For all we know, we could be hallucinating all the time.
Our beliefs are supposed to help us avoid pain and seek pleasure.
Beliefs can help us avoid pain and seek pleasure even if they’re false. +
It’s silly to aspire to something that might be unobtainable.
Truth about most matters might be fundamentally unobtainable. +
False beliefs can adequately fulfill the purpose of belief.
We should aspire to have useful beliefs, not true beliefs.

12. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
A Big Question
What, at the end of the day, do you want your beliefs to be?
I want my beliefs to be true, if possible, but I’ll choose useful beliefs if truth on a matter is unobtainable.
True!
Useful!
Standard Models of Critical Thinking

13. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Argument Evaluation
A good argument = An argument that gives us good reason to think that the ultimate conclusion is true.
An argument is good if and only if it has at least one good line of reasoning.
A line of reasoning is good if and only if all of its premises are good and all of its inferences are good.
A premise is good only if it’s true.
An inference is good only if should the ideas on the “top” of the inference be true then the idea on the “bottom” of the inference will be true as well. P S U +

14. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Argument Evaluation
Evaluating Inferences: Implicit Premise Technique
1. Find the implicit premise needed to perfect the inference.
2. Evaluate this implicit premise.
Often this involves
a. Identifying the “common concepts” between the top idea and the bottom idea,
b. Identifying the “left-over” concepts from the top idea and the bottom idea, and
c. Constructing a missing premise equivalent to “If [left-over concept from top idea] then [left-over concept from bottom idea].”

15. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Argument Evaluation
A good argument = An argument that gives us good reason to think that the ultimate conclusion is true.
An argument is good if and only if it has at least one good line of reasoning.
A line of reasoning is good if and only if all of its explicit and implicit premises are good and all of its inferences are good.
A premise is good only if it’s true. + P S U + P
An inference is good only if should the ideas on the “top” of the inference be true then the idea on the “bottom” of the inference will be true as well. + P

16. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
What are you thinking? Uncovering Arguments & Hidden Beliefs
The Obvious Truth
I can’t think of the answer right now.
If I know something, I should be able to think of it right away.2 +
(  ) Why should I think that’s true?
I don’t know the answer to the first question on this test.
If I don’t know one answer then I won’t know any answers. +
(  ) Why should I think that’s true? +
I’m going to fail this test.
Smart people never fail tests.
(  ) What’s so bad about that? If this were true, then what?1 +
Everyone will think I’m stupid.
Only smart people are likeable.
(  ) What’s so bad about that? If this were true, then what?
Nobody will like me.
The Obvious Awful
1. Burns, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy, p ; Burns, The Feeling Good Handbook, p This technique uncovers “missing subconclusions.”
Anxiety
2. Burns calls implicit premises “silent assumptions.” “A silent assumption…represents your value system, your personal philosophy .” (Burns, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy, p. 234)

17. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Should you think this way? What are some better ways to think?
There are lots of things I know that I can’t think of right away.
If I know something, I should be able to think of it right away. 
I might know lots of other answers even if I don’t know this one.
If I don’t know one answer then I won’t know any answers. 
Smart people can and do fail tests sometimes.
Smart people never fail tests. 
Being smart isn’t what makes someone likeable.
Only smart people are likeable. 

18. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
In General…
Is it true?
 Is it true? +
(  ) Why should I think that’s true? : +
 Is it true?
(  ) Why should I think that’s true?
 Is it true? +
Visible Belief
(  ) What’s so bad about that? If this were true, then what? +
 Is it true? :
(  ) What’s so bad about that? If this were true, then what? +
 Is it true?
Emotion
Replace untrue thoughts with true ones.

19. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Common Types of Bad Reasoning3
1. All-or-Nothing Thinking
“The exam that I wrote contained an error, so the exam I wrote was terrible.”
2. Overgeneralization
“This exam had a problem, so none of my exams are any good.”
3. Mental Filter
“Susan fell asleep in class, so I’m a boring teacher.”
4. Disqualifying the Positive
“Laura’s a naturally good student, so her interest doesn’t count.”
5. Jumping to Conclusions
Mind Reading
“Sam is reading the newspaper, so he thinks that I’m a bad teacher.”
Fortune Telling
“I wasn’t ‘on’ today, so I’ll get low evaluations.”
6. Magnification / Minimization
“Brenda’s just a nice person, so her complement doesn’t matter.”
7. Emotional Reasoning
“I feel incompetent, so I must really be incompetent.”
8. “Should” Statements
“Writing papers is a good way to learn, so I should assign more papers.”
9. Labeling and Mislabeling
“Someone criticized my class, so I’m a failure.”
10. Personalization
“Some students failed, so I must be doing something wrong.”
3. From Burns, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy, pp ; The Feeling Good Handbook, pp Also discussed by Irwin and Bassham in “Depression, Informal Fallacies, and Cognitive Therapy: The Critical Thinking Cure?”

20. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Inferences Implicit Premises
“The exam that I wrote contained an error, so the exam I wrote was terrible.”
Fact f is of definitive importance.
“This exam had a problem, so none of my exams are any good.”
If a few x are P then almost all x are P.
“Susan fell asleep in class, so I’m a boring teacher.”
“Laura’s a naturally good student, so her interest doesn’t count.”
Fact f is of almost no importance.
“Sam is reading the newspaper, so he thinks that I’m a bad teacher.”
I know what people are thinking.
“I wasn’t ‘on’ today, so I’ll get low evaluations.”
I know the future.
“Brenda’s just a nice person, so her complement doesn’t matter.”
“I feel incompetent, so I must really be incompetent.”
My feelings are accurate.
“Writing papers is a good way to learn, so I should assign more papers.”
If x is a good thing then I should do it.
“Someone criticized my class, so I’m a failure.”
“Some students failed, so I must be doing something wrong.”
If something bad happens, it’s my fault.

21. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Implicit Premises to Watch Out For
My feelings are accurate.
I know what people are thinking.
I know the future.
If something bad happens then it’s my fault.
If x is a good thing then I should do it.
Fact f is of definitive / almost no importance.
If a few x are P then almost all x are P.
But it’s important to take the arguments on a case-by-case basis.

22. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
The Cost-Benefit Method for Evaluating Hidden Beliefs
The Cost-Benefit Method for Evaluating “Silent Assumptions.”
“I must always do what people expect me to do.”
Advantages of Believing This
Disadvantages of Believing This
If I’m able to meet people’s expectations, I can feel I’m in control. This feels good.
I sometimes compromise and end up doing things that are not in my best interest and I don’t really want to do.
When I please people I will feel secure and safe.
This assumption keeps me from testing relationships…
Etc.
Burns, Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy, p. 263.
What does Burns (and what do other cognitive therapists) want our beliefs to be: True or Useful?

23. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Two Conclusions and a Question
Critical thinking can provide a framework that cognitive therapy can use to identify and assess beliefs.
Cognitive Therapy can (for all we’ve seen) aim at truth across the board.
Should it aim at truth?
What if depressed people have are more apt to have true beliefs – at least about certain things - than non-depressed people? (Depressive Realism, Alloy and Abramson)

24. Dona Warren, "Thinking Well: Uncovering Our Hidden Assumptions"
Bibliography
Alloy, L. B., & Abramson, L. Y. (1979). Judgment of contingency in depressed and nondepressed students: Sadder but wiser?. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General 108,
Beck, Aaron T. (1979). Cognitive Therapy and the Emotional Disorders. New York: Meridian.
Burns, David D. (1980). Feeling Good: The New Mood Therapy. New York: Penguin Books.
Burns, David D. (1990). The Feeling Good Handbook. New York: Penguin Books.
Cohen, Elliot D. (1991). Caution: Faulty Thinking can be Harmful to Your Happiness. Fort Pierce, FL: Trace-WilCo Publishers.
Corsini, Raymond and Danny Wedding (eds.) (2000). Current Psychotherapies. F.E. Itasca, Illinois: Peacock Publishers, Inc.
Irwin, William and Gregory Bassham, “Depression, Informal Fallacies, and Cognitive Therapy: The Critical Thinking Cure?”, Inquiry: Critical Thinking Across the Disciplines, Spring 2003, Vol. 21, No. 3, pp
Kelley, David (1998). The Art of Reasoning. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.