1. What is Motivation?
Forces coming from within a person that account for the willful direction, intensity, and persistence of the person’s efforts toward achieving specific goals, where achievement is not due solely to ability or to environmental factors

2. Theories of Motivation
Content Theories
Maslow’s need hierarchy
Alderfer’s ERG theory
McClelland’s need theory
Herzberg’s two-factor theory
Process Theories
Expectancy theory
Equity theory
Goal-setting theory

3. Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow
Maslow's
Need Hierarchy

4. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Must work your way up…
Self- Actualization
Esteem Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs
Safety Needs
People motivated by desire to satisfy specific needs, arranged in a hierarchical order of prepotency. Lower level needs must be satisfied before a person can be motivated by higher level needs
Physiological needs – basic survival needs – food, water, air and shelter
Safety needs – need to be safe and secure in the environment – both physical and psychological
Social and belongingness needs – interaction with and acceptance by other people, desire for affection, affiliation, friendship and love
Esteem needs – relate to feelings of self-respect and self-worth, along with the respect and esteem from peers
Self-actualization – a desire to fulfill one’s potential, maximizing the use of one’s skills and abilities
Physiological Needs

5. Clayton Alderfer
Alderfer's
ERG Theory

6. ERG Theory Existence Needs Relatedness Needs Growth Needs
Satisfaction and Progression
Frustration and Regression
People are motivated by three hierarchically ordered types of needs: existence needs (E), relatedness needs (R), and growth needs (G). Usually people must satisfy needs at the lower levels before being strongly motivated by higher-level needs. However, frustration at higher levels can lead people to be motivated by lower-level needs

7. Comparison of Two Theories
Maslow’s Need Hierarchy
Physiological Needs
Safety Needs
Social and Belongingness Needs
Esteem Needs
Self- Actualization
Existence Needs
Relatedness Needs
Growth Needs
Alderfer’s ERG Theory
Two differences between Maslow’s and Alderfer’s theories:
Notion of prepotency is not fixed in ERG theory - May become concerned about a higher order need before lower order need is satisfied and May still have strong desire to satisfy lower order need, even when the higher order need seems most important.
Even when a need is satisfied, it may remain as the dominant motivator if the next need in the hierarchy cannot be satisfied (frustration-regression process).
Adapted from Exhibit 6-1: Maslow’s Need Hierarchy and Alderfer’s ERG Theory Compared

8. McClelland’s
David C. McClelland
Theory of Needs

9. McClelland’s Theory of Needs
Achievement
Power
Affiliation
People with a high need for achievement - Prefer to set their own goals. Set goals of moderate difficulty that are achievable. Like to solve problems rather than leave the results to chance. Are more interested in achieving the goal than in the associated rewards. Prefer situations in which they receive regular, concrete feedback on their performance. Are positive thinkers who find workable solutions to life’s hurdles and challenges. Take a strong personal responsibility for their work.
People with a high need for affiliation - Have a strong desire to be liked and to stay on good terms with most other people. Tend not to make good managers because they often treat different people in different ways (for example, may apply inconsistent rules). Are more concerned with initiating and maintaining personal relationships than with focusing on the task at hand.
People with a high need for institutional power - Are concerned about the functioning of the organization and have a desire to serve others. Are controlled in their exercise of power.
People with a high need for personal power - Desire to influence others for their own personal gain. Are more impulsive in exercising power. Show little concern for other people. Are focused on obtaining symbols of prestige and status (such as big offices).

10. Conclusion
People with a high need for institutional power are particularly good at
Increasing morale
Creating clear expectations
Getting others to work for the good of the organization
Effective managers have both a high need for achievement and a high need for institutional power

11. Managerial Advice
Managers Over the Edge
Why do you think there have been changes in the need for achievement over the last 20+ years?
Do you agree or disagree with the two reasons (coerciveness and shortcuts) given that can cause problems?
It is suggested that understanding needs and managing needs are two guidelines that will help high-achievement managers. Do you agree or disagree with this idea?

12. Frederick Herzberg
Herzberg's
Two-Factor Theory

13. Two-Factor Theory
Emphasizes two sets of rewards or outcomes – those related to job satisfaction and those related to job dissatisfaction
The two sets are not opposite ends of the same continuum but are independent states
Job factors leading to satisfaction are different from those leading to dissatisfaction, and vice versa

14. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene Factors
Motivators
Motivators – also called satisfiers, lead to greater job satisfaction
Hygiene factors – also call dissatisfiers, when absent or missing lead to job dissatisfaction

15. Two-Factor Theory Motivators Hygiene Factors
When increased, lead to greater satisfaction
When deficient, lead to greater dissatisfaction
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Opportunity for advancement or promotion
Challenging work
Potential for personal growth
Pay
Technical supervision
Working conditions
Company policies and procedures
Interpersonal relationships with others
Status
Security

16. Process Theories
Expectancy
Equity
Goal-Setting

17. Expectancy Theory MF = E x  (I x V) MF = MF = Motivational Force
Victor Vroom
MF = E x  (I x V)
MF = Motivational Force
E = Expectancy
I = Instrumentality
V = Valence V1 I1 I2 I3
Outcome V2
Effort
Performance E
Outcome
MF =
Expectancy theory – Vroom’s theory that suggests motivation is a function of an individual’s expectancy that a given amount of effort will lead to a particular level of performance, instrumentality judgments (perceived connections) that indicate performance will lead to certain outcomes, and the valence (value) of outcomes.
Expectancy - subjective probability that effort will lead to performance
Instrumentality - subjective probability that a given level of performance will lead to certain outcomes
Valence - An Individual’s expected satisfaction associated with each outcome resulting from performance V3
Outcome
Adapted from Exhibit 6-2: Expectancy Theory

18. Expectancy Theory To increase motivation
Heighten expectancy by increasing associates’ beliefs that exerting effort will lead to higher levels of performance
Increase instrumentalities by clearly linking high performance to outcomes
Increase valence by providing outcomes that are highly valued

19. Equity Theory
Motivation is based on a person’s assessment of the ratio of the outcomes received (pay, status) for inputs on the job (effort, ability) compared to the same ratio for a comparison other
My Outcomes
Other’s Outcomes
vs.
My inputs
Other’s Inputs

20. Equity Theory Perceived inequity, employees may:
Increase or decrease inputs
Change their outcomes
Distort perceptions of inputs and/or outcomes
Distort perceptions of other’s inputs and/or outcomes
Change the referent others
Leave the organization

21. Reactions to Inequity
Sensitives – pay a great deal of attention to outcome-input ratios, motivated to resolve any inequity – favorable or unfavorable
Benevolents – tolerant of inequity that is unfavorable but not comfortable with inequity that favors them
Entitleds – do not tolerate unfavorable inequity but are comfortable with inequity that favors them

22. Reactions to Equity
Feelings of equity frequently lead to outcome satisfaction and job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship behaviors.
Organizational Citizenship – an associate’s willingness to engage in organizationally important behaviors that go beyond prescribed job duties – helping co-workers, expending extra effort, etc.

23. Distributive Justice
A form of justice that relates to perceptions of fairness in outcomes. Often tied to perceptions of inequity.

24. Procedural Justice
The degree to which people think the procedures used to determine outcomes are fair. Some rules:
Based on accurate information
Formal grievance procedures
Procedures free from bias
Ethical code
Procedures applied consistently
Treated with respect
Procedural justice icon comes in on mouse click. Arrows and rules come in automatically at two second intervals.
Procedural Justice
Voice in the decision process
Given reasons for decisions

25. Edwin Locke
Goal-Setting Theory
Challenging and specific goals increase human performance because they affect attention, effort, and persistence. To be effective, managers should address:
Goal difficulty
Goal specificity
Goal commitment
Participation in setting goals
Feedback
Goal difficulty – how difficult should the performance goal be. Should the goal be easy, moderately difficult, or very difficult to achieve?
Goal specificity – how specific should the expected outcome be (e.g. number of parts assembled), or can goals be more loosely defined (do your best)?
Goal commitment – what will make associates commit to goals?
Participation in setting goals – how important is it for associates to have input in selecting the goals and levels of performance to be achieved? If important, how should they be involved?
Feedback – to what extent should associates be informed of their progress as they work toward the performance goals?

26. Factors Affecting Goal Commitment
Factors Increasing the Desirability of Attaining a Given Goal
Factors Increasing the Perceived Ability of Attaining a Given Goal
Desirability Factors
The goal is set by or in conjunction with an appropriate authority figure
The goal fosters a sense of self-achievement and potential for development
The goal is set by or in conjunction with someone who is trustworthy
The goal is set by or in conjunction with someone who is supportive and promotes self-efficacy
Peers are committed to the goal
The goal assigner, if there is one, provides a rationale for the goal
The goal provides a challenge to prove oneself and meets ego needs
The goal is public
Perceived Ability Factors
There is high self-efficacy on the task
There are successful role models
The task is not impossibly difficult
Expectancy for success is high
There is competition with others
Adapted From Exhibit 6-3: Factors Affecting Goal Commitment