1. Political Forces in the 1920s:
The Weimar Republic
Fascism in Italy

2. Interwar period Period of great contradictions
Period of artistic experimentation, foundations of modernity in art and architecture
Brief era of prosperity followed by deep depression
Period in which some of 20th centuries most horrendous regimes established

3. Germany: the Weimar Republic
A Republic without Republicans?
Besieged with economic problems, fragile political support –
challenges from revolutionaries on left, nationalists on right
At best contingent support from key groups in German society
Interplay between international issues (Reparations, the peace settlement and domestic politics)

4. Origins Collapse of German War effort in 1918
Republic proclaimed following Kaiser’s abdication
Constitution drafted in 1919 in east German city of Weimar

5. Political forces Extreme left: Left: Centre: Right:
Communists committed to violent revolution
Left:
Social Democrats, committed to economic change, redistribution of wealth – increasingly part of system
Centre:
Christian Democrats,
Right:
Liberals
Conservatives
Nationalists
Extreme right: opponents of liberal democracy

6. Bases of support Pro-system: the ‘Weimar parties:’
Social Democrats (SPD)
Catholics (Centre Party)
Liberals (DVP, DP)
Republic opposed or at best tolerated by
military
civil service
Judiciary
upper classes

7. Changes over time Initially, ‘Weimar parties’ enjoy strong support;
But challenged from left and right: revolutionaries, free corps, militias….
Support narrows as early as 1920
Communists and independent Socialists gain on the left (20%)
Nationalists gain on the right (33%)
Further narrowing in 1925
Hindenburg elected president

8. Three periods: 1918-1923 -- Shaky start 1924-1929 -- Normalcy
Great Depression and demise

9. 1918-1923 Problems of revolts from right and left 1923 Ruhr crisis:
Eventual suppression
1923 Ruhr crisis:
France & Belgium occupy in order to extract reparations
Workers strike – with approval of German government
Inflation and hyper-inflation: money printed to cover costs

10. Reparations conundrum
Dawes plan (1924):
Rescheduling of reparations payments – make them manageable
U.S. loans to Germany
Enable Germany to make payments to France
Enabling France to repay U.S.

11. 1924-1929 Stabilization of currency Attempts to make Weimar work:
Broader coalition: centre-right parties such as DVP join
Period of relative success:
Political stabilization
Accommodations reached with neighboring countries (Locarno Pact)

12.
US Stock Market Crash
German dependence on American loans results in shutdowns, mass unemployment
Extreme parties – right and left – gain support
Inability to sustain cabinets
successive elections
presidential intervention
growth of support for Nazism

13. Fascism in Italy

14. Origins Short term: Longer term:
Italian disappointments in the peace settlements, especially failure to obtain Fiume, Dalmatian coast
Longer term:
Class, religious, regional divisions
Incompleteness of Italian unification in 1860s, 1870s
Weakness & ineffectiveness of the regime

15. Mussolini Former socialist
Breaks with his party over support for World War I
Demagogic speaker
Leader of squadristi – squads of thugs, blackshirts

16. Coming to power
Ongoing government crisis, widespread social unrest, weak government during World War I
1921: fascists elected to parliament
1922: March on Rome:
Indecisive King, fearing army unreliable, invites Mussolini to form of government

17. Consolidating the regime:
Mussolini uses control of government to establish dictatorship
Modification of electoral law
Successive elimination of opponents
Suppression of independent forces

18. Building support:
Mussolini builds support by modifying positions, accommodating key groups
Gains support of business by restricting unions
Gains support of Church by
abandoning anti-clerical positions
embracing Catholicism,
concluding Lateran pacts

19. The Fascist Regime Evolving type Glorification of nation/ leader
Ostensible dispersion of power to ‘independent’ corporations running different segments of the economy
Emphasis both on resolving conflicts and use of terror to marginalize opponents