1. Memory: Information Processing

2. Information Processing Model
Encoding - getting information into the memory system
Storage - retaining the information over time
Retrieval - getting information out of memory storage

3. Encoding

4. Two Types of Encoding
Automatic Processing
Effortful Processing

5. Automatic Processing unconscious encoding info; without effort
Place information (example: remembering where a piece of info is in your textbook, but not remembering what the info is)

6. Effortful Processing
requires attention & a conscious, deliberate effort
example: studying for a test

7. Processing Trends & Strategies
How can you use effortful processing to encode school-related information?

8. Rehearsal repeating information to encode it
one of the most important processing strategies

9. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909)
did memory studies w/ three-letter nonsense syllables (gnh, auk, loi)
conclusion: the more you rehearse, the more you retain
developed the forgetting curve (a.k.a. “retention curve” or “Ebbinghaus curve”)

10. Rehearsal and Retention (From Baddeley, 1982)

11. Overlearning continuing to rehearse after the info has been learned
rehearsing past the point of mastery
helps ensure info will be available even under stress
examples: playing musical pieces, sports

12. Poodle
Tree
Dance
House
Airport
Sugar
Child
Ground
Watch
Squirrel
Truck
Building
Hospital
Pencil
Terrace
Lamp

13. Is the word pencil on the list?
Is the word poodle on the list?
Is the word ground on the list

14. Serial Position Effect
primacy effect – ability to recall info near the beginning of a list
recency effect – the ability to recall info near the end of a list

15. Primacy/Recency Effect (From Craik & Watkins, 1973)

16. Spacing Effect
distributed practice - spread rehearsal out in several sessions separated by a period of time
massed practice - putting all rehearsal together in one long session (cramming)
distributed practice helps you retain info better than massed practice

17. Mnemonic Device
memory trick or technique for remembering specific facts
Example:
Peg-word System

18. Peg-Word System
the person associates items to remember with a list of peg words already memorized
goal: visualize the items to remember with the items on the pegs

19. Peg Word System

20. Mnemonic: Method of Loci
person associates items to be remembered with familiar places

21. Semantic Encoding making the material meaningful
encoding info that is meaningful enhances recall
make info meaningful by making it relevant to your life
How do you make material meaningful? Self-Reference Effect

22. Encoding Research (From Craik & Tulving, 1975)

23. Storage

24. Three Storage Systems three distinct storage systems : sensory memory
working memory
long-term memory

25. Sensory Memory
brief, initial coding of sensory info in the memory system
iconic store – visual info (less than ½ second)
echoic store – sound info (3 – 4 seconds)
info held just long enough to make a decision on its importance

26. Working Memory
holds info briefly before it is stored or forgotten (conscious, activated)
holds about seven (+ or – 2) chunks of info at one time (example: phone numbers)
can retain info as long as it is rehearsed

27. Long-Term Memory
relatively permanent & limitless storehouse of the memory system
holds memories w/out conscious effort

28. How are memories stored?
each memory activates a specific pattern of firing in brain cells (neurons)
long-term potentiation: as the neurons for a particular memory fire over & over, the synapses become more efficient (release neurotransmitter serotonin)

29. Storage: Explicit & Implicit Memories

30. Explicit Memory memory of facts & experiences
examples:
At what temperature does water freeze?
What is your mother’s middle name?
What did you eat for dinner last night?
must consciously retrieve and declare
processed through the hippocampus

31. Implicit Memory memory of skills & procedures
examples:
how to walk
how to read
how to button your shirt
retrieved without conscious recollection
processed through the cerebellum

32. Memory and the Hippocampus
damage to the hippocampus results in the inability to form new explicit memories
the ability to remember the skills of implicit memories remains

33. Memory and the Hippocampus

34. Think about this…
What would happen if a man who experienced damage to his hippocampus went to play golf on the same course every day?
Answer:
He would have no explicit memory of the course – it would seem like a brand new place every time.
But his scores would gradually improve over time, because his implicit memories would allow him to get better with practice.

35. Memory and the Brain: How do we get information into long-term memory?

36. How are memories constructed?
memory research says we build memories from bits & pieces of info.
when pieces are missing, we invent new ones to fill the spaces

37. Retrieval

38. Retrieval two forms of retrieval
recall - retrieve information learned earlier
examples: essay, fill-in-the-blank, short answer test questions
recognition - identify items learned earlier
examples: multiple choice & matching test questions

39. How do we get to memories we need to retrieve?
memories are primed (triggered) by retrieval cues
the more you know about a subject, the easier it is to learn more about it

40. Context Effect
enhanced ability to retrieve info when you are in an environment similar to the one in which you encoded the info

41. State Dependent Memory
retrieval is best when the person is in the same physical & emotional state as when they encoded the info.
physical examples: tired, under the influence of caffeine
mood examples: happy, depressed

43. The Brain Documentary: Memory