1. Ch. 8: Group Processes

2. 4 reasons people join groups
1. Evolutionary pressures (safety, protection from uncertainty)
2. Accomplish things
3. Social status and identity
4. To interact with specific members

3. 5 stages of group development
Forming: members orient themselves, are polite and explanatory
Storming: members try to influence group and its direction… can lead to conflict, hostility, and excitement
Norming: reconcile conflicts and develop common purpose and norms
Performing: members perform their own tasks to achieve goals
Adjourning: members disengage when benefits no longer outweigh costs

4. 3 components of groups
1. Roles: formal or informal; instrumental (helps achieve tasks) or expressive (provides emotional support).
2. Norms: rules of conduct; formal or informal.
3. Cohesiveness: affected by commitment to task, attraction to members, group pride, number of interactions, threats from inside or out.

5. How does group cohesiveness impact performance?
In general, they are causally positively correlated
the higher the cohesiveness, the higher the performance.
Can also depend on group norms – if the norm is to slack off, then performance won’t be very good, even (or especially) if the group is cohesive.

6. How does group polarization work?
If you have an opinion, then discussing it with the group can strengthen it.
Simply hearing others repeat our arguments can validate or strengthen them – someone else thinks my argument makes sense so I must be right!
Example: Let’s say you want to get a tattoo, but you’re really not sure if you should. Your group of friends generally supports tattoos, so when you ask them if you should, they are going to say yes. For one, they want to support you, and also they want to stick with the group norm, which is pro-tattoo. You’ll probably leave the conversation feeling much better about getting one.

7. Group polarization study
Groups were divided based on survey results into low, medium, and high prejudice
They then discussed racial issues.
After, the low prejudice people were even less prejudice, and the high prejudice people were even more prejudice.
Their opinions had been validated by like-thinking others.

8. Examples of poor groupthink decision-making
Groupthink: decision-making style characterized by excessive tendency to seek concurrence (to all agree)
Bay of Pigs
Pearl Harbor
Watergate
Iran-Contra Affair
Challenger explosion

9. When does groupthink occur?
When the need for agreement takes priority over making the best decision.
Example: You have to make a decision FAST, so you go with the first solution offered rather than discussing and considering.

10. Groupthink: 3 contributing factors
1. Highly cohesive groups (disagreeing gets you shunned)
2. Group structure (members are similar, isolated, strong leader, lack decision-making procedures)
3. Stressful situations (time, high-stakes)

11. Cohesiveness and groupthink
On the one hand, if the group is cohesive, you don’t want to be the one that disagrees with everyone.
On the other hand, if your groups is cohesive and close, then members might feel more comfortable sharing their deviant opinions. There might also be more respect in the group, so the others are more likely to listen.

12. 3 suggestions for good group decision-making
Consult widely with outsiders
Leaders should encourage criticism, not take strong stand early on
Subgroups should discuss the issue, someone should be assigned “devils advocate,” and a last meeting held to reconsider

13. Additive tasks
Task where the product is the sum of all members’ contributions. Group total is more than a person could come up with alone.
Examples: giving to charity, cheering in a crowd

14. Conjunctive tasks
Task where the product determined by individual with poorest performance. Group total worse than a person could do alone.
Example: mountain climbing teams

15. Disjunctive tasks
Task where the product is potentially determined by individual with best performance. Group total potentially better than a person could do alone – the more people, the better the chance of a “breakthrough.”
Example: problem solving

16. Process loss
When group performance is hindered because of group processes.
Additive tasks: social loafing
Conjunctive tasks: group slowed down by weak members
Disjunctive tasks: group doesn’t realize who has the best ideas

17. What types of goals improve group performance?
Goals that are:
Specific
Challenging
Reachable
Groups tend to set lower goals than individuals

18. Individual vs group brainstorming
A number of people brainstorming individually produce more and higher-quality ideas than people brainstorming together.

19. Brainstorming Activity
Please wait while I group you…
Imagine you are part of the Psychology Club at school. You need to do a fundraiser to raise money for your group’s trip to a psychology conference. Now you need ideas for fundraisers.
On your own or in your group, write down as many ideas as you can for fundraisers to do for your club. You will have 3 minutes.

20. Brainstorming Activity
Groups: go through your list and eliminate any ideas that would be impossible to pull off. This is checking for quality. Then, count up the number of GOOD ideas you have.
Individuals: Get into the groups I assign you, and combine everyone’s ideas into one list. Eliminate any ideas that would be impossible to pull off. This is checking for quality. Then, count up the number of GOOD ideas you have.

21. What is biased sampling?
When the group fails to consider important information that is not common knowledge in the group.

22. Biased sampling and the Challenger explosion
The information that Challenger might not be safe to launch was not shared with everyone, particularly those of higher rank.
The communication networks in place did not allow for the engineers at the bottom of the hierarchy to speak directly with the decision- making management at the top.

23. Examples of entrapment
Increased commitment to a failing course of action in order to justify the investments (time, money) already made.
U.S. escalation of war in Vietnam despite evidence it wouldn’t succeed
Boston tunnel construction – cost over 5x what it was supposed to

24. Group support systems Allow group members to: “speak” at the same time
see each other’s ideas
remain anonymous but accountable
lead to overall better communication and decision- making

25. Group diversity In favor of:
Leads to flexibility, creativity, and innovative approaches
In criticism of:
Miscommunication and misunderstanding more likely
Negative group dynamics
Worse performance than homogenous groups