1. Chapter 16 Carbohydrates Adel M. Awadallah Islamic University of Gaza
Organic chemistry for medicine and biology students
Chem 2311
Chapter 16
Carbohydrates
By Prof. Dr.
Adel M. Awadallah
Islamic University of Gaza

2. Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature
The empiric formula for many of the simpler carbohydrates is (CH2O)n, hence the name “hydrate of carbon”
Carbohydrates are classified as:
Polyhydroxyaldehydes (aldoses)
Polyhydroxyketones (Ketoses)

3. Monosaccharides

4. D,L-Sugars

5. Epimers are diastereomers that differ only in one stereogenic center.
D-(-)-Erythrose and D-(-)-threose D-glucose , D-manose D-glucose, D-galactose

6. Anomeric carbons and the cyclic hemiacetal structure of Glucose
Anomeric carbon is the carbon that forms the newstereogenic center

7. D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6
D-glucose is an aldohexose with the formula (C·H2O)6. The red atoms highlight the aldehyde group, and the blue atoms highlight the asymmetric center furthest from the aldehyde; because this -OH is on the right of the Fischer projection, this is a D sugar.
The α and β anomers of glucose. Note the position of the anomeric carbon (red or green) relative to the CH2OH group bound to carbon 5: they are either on the opposite sides (α), or the same side (β).

8. Mutarotation
Mutarotation: is the change in optical rotation due to interconversion of anomers in solution. It is explained by the equilibrium

9. Pyranose and Furanose Structures Glucofuranoses are present to less than 1 % in glucose solutions

10. The Ketose D-fructose exists in solution mainly in two furanose forms

11. Problem: D-Erythrose cannot exist in pyranose forms, but furanose forms are possible. Explain. Draw the structure for α-D-erythrofuranose

12. Conformations of Pyranoses In β-D-Glucose all the larger substituents are at each ring carbon are equatorial, hence this form is preffered at equilibrium

13. Esters and Ethers from Monosaccharides

14. Reduction of Monosaccharides
Aldoses are reduced to alditols
Sorbitol is used commercially as a sweetener and sugar substituent

15. Oxidation of Monosaccharides
Aloses are oxidized to aldonic acids
A carbohydrate that reduces Ag+ or Cu2+ is called a reducing sugar

16. Aldoses are oxidized by aqueous nitric acid to dicarboxylic acids called aldaric acids

17. Formation of Glycosides from Monosaccharides

18. Mechanism of Glycoside Formation

20. Disaccharides (Maltose)

21. Cellobiose

22. Lactose

23. Sucrose

24. Sweeteners

25. Polysaccharides
Starch and Glycogen Starch is the energy storing carbohydrate of plants
Hydrolysis of starch
Starch is composed of amylose (20%) and amylopectin
In amylose, the glucose units ( ) are in continuous chain with 1,4 linkages

26. Amylopectin (300 – 5000 glucose units) is highly branched molecule Chains with consecutive 1,4 links average units in length. These chains are connected by 1,6 linkages.

27. Glycogen Energy storing carbohydrate of anilmals
1,4 and 1,6 linked glucose units
about 100,000 glucose units
A branch every 8-12 glucose units
Produced from glucose that is absorbed from the intestines into the blood
Glycogen helps maintain the glucose balance in the body, by removing and storing excess glucose from ingested food and later supplying it to the blood

28. Cellulose
Cellulose is an unbranched polymer of glucose joined by 1,4-β-glycosidic bonds (average 5000 units)
Humans and other animals digest starch and glycogen
Many bacteria contain β-glucosidase and can hydrolyze cellulose (found in Termites (النمل الأبيض) and Ruminants (الحيوانات المجترة ))

29. Cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate

30. Chitin : is found in crustacean shells and insect exoskeletons
Similar to cellulose, but at C2 acetylamino groupCH3CONH
Pectines found in fruits and used in making jellies
They linear polymers of D-galacturonic acid linked with 1,4-glycosidic bonds. D-galacturonic acidhas the same structure as D-galactose except that the C-6 primary alcohol group is replaced by a carboxyl group.