Chapter 4 Network Layer Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 6th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012 Network Layer.

Chapter 4 Network Layer Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 6th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012 Network Layer

Chapter 4: outline 4.1 introduction
4.2 virtual circuit and datagram networks 4.3 what’s inside a router 4.4 IP: Internet Protocol datagram format IPv4 addressing ICMP IPv6 4.5 routing algorithms link state distance vector hierarchical routing 4.6 routing in the Internet RIP OSPF BGP 4.7 broadcast and multicast routing Network Layer

Network layer transport segment from sending to receiving host
application transport network data link physical transport segment from sending to receiving host on sending side encapsulates segments into datagrams on receiving side, delivers segments to transport layer network layer protocols in every host, router router examines header fields in all IP datagrams passing through it network data link physical application transport network data link physical Network Layer

Two key network-layer functions
forwarding: move packets from router’s input to appropriate router output routing: determine route taken by packets from source to dest. routing algorithms Network Layer

Interplay between routing and forwarding
1 2 3 0111 value in arriving packet’s header routing algorithm local forwarding table header value output link 0100 0101 1001 routing algorithm determines end-end-path through network forwarding table determines local forwarding at this router Network Layer

Connection, connection-less service
datagram network provides network-layer connectionless service virtual-circuit network provides network-layer connection service Network Layer

Datagram networks no call setup at network layer
routers: no state about end-to-end connections no network-level concept of “connection” packets forwarded using destination host address application transport network data link physical application transport network data link physical 1. send datagrams 2. receive datagrams Network Layer

Datagram forwarding table
4 billion IP addresses, so rather than list individual destination address list range of addresses (aggregate table entries) routing algorithm local forwarding table dest address output link address-range 1 address-range 2 address-range 3 address-range 4 3 2 1 IP destination address in arriving packet’s header 1 2 3 Network Layer

Datagram forwarding table
Destination Address Range through otherwise Link Interface 1 2 3 Network Layer

Longest prefix matching
when looking for forwarding table entry for given destination address, use longest address prefix that matches destination address. Destination Address Range *** ********* ********* *** ********* otherwise Link interface 1 2 3 examples: DA: which interface? DA: which interface? Network Layer

Router architecture overview
two key router functions: run routing algorithms/protocol (RIP, OSPF, BGP) forwarding datagrams from incoming to outgoing link forwarding tables computed, pushed to input ports routing processor routing, management control plane (software) forwarding data plane (hardware) high-seed switching fabric router input ports router output ports Network Layer

Switching via a bus datagram from input port memory
to output port memory via a shared bus bus contention: switching speed limited by bus bandwidth 32 Gbps bus, Cisco 5600: sufficient speed for access and enterprise routers bus Network Layer

Switching via interconnection network
overcome bus bandwidth limitations banyan networks, crossbar, other interconnection nets initially developed to connect processors in multiprocessor advanced design: fragmenting datagram into fixed length cells, switch cells through the fabric. Cisco 12000: switches 60 Gbps through the interconnection network crossbar Network Layer

The Internet network layer
host, router network layer functions: transport layer: TCP, UDP IP protocol addressing conventions datagram format packet handling conventions routing protocols path selection RIP, OSPF, BGP network layer forwarding table ICMP protocol error reporting router “signaling” link layer physical layer Network Layer

32 bit destination IP address
IP datagram format IP protocol version number ver length 32 bits data (variable length, typically a TCP or UDP segment) 16-bit identifier header checksum time to live 32 bit source IP address head. len type of service flgs fragment offset upper layer 32 bit destination IP address options (if any) total datagram length (bytes) header length (bytes) “type” of data for fragmentation/ reassembly max number remaining hops (decremented at each router) upper layer protocol to deliver payload to e.g. timestamp, record route taken, specify list of routers to visit. how much overhead? 20 bytes of TCP 20 bytes of IP = 40 bytes + app layer overhead Network Layer

IP fragmentation, reassembly
network links have MTU (max.transfer size) - largest possible link-level frame different link types, different MTUs large IP datagram divided (“fragmented”) within net one datagram becomes several datagrams “reassembled” only at final destination IP header bits used to identify, order related fragments … fragmentation: in: one large datagram out: 3 smaller datagrams reassembly … Network Layer

IP fragmentation, reassembly
ID =x offset =0 fragflag length =4000 example: 4000 byte datagram MTU = 1500 bytes ID =x offset =0 fragflag =1 length =1500 =185 =370 =1040 one large datagram becomes several smaller datagrams 1480 bytes in data field offset = 1480/8 Network Layer

IP addressing: introduction
IP address: 32-bit identifier for host, router interface interface: connection between host/router and physical link router’s typically have multiple interfaces host typically has one or two interfaces (e.g., wired Ethernet, wireless ) IP addresses associated with each interface = 223 1 1 1 Network Layer

IP addressing: introduction
Q: how are interfaces actually connected? A: we’ll learn about that in chapter 5, 6. A: wired Ethernet interfaces connected by Ethernet switches A: wireless WiFi interfaces connected by WiFi base station For now: don’t need to worry about how one interface is connected to another (with no intervening router) Network Layer

Subnets IP address: what’s a subnet ? subnet part - high order bits
host part - low order bits what’s a subnet ? device interfaces with same subnet part of IP address can physically reach each other without intervening router subnet network consisting of 3 subnets Network Layer

Subnets /24 /24 /24 subnet recipe to determine the subnets, detach each interface from its host or router, creating islands of isolated networks each isolated network is called a subnet subnet mask: /24 Network Layer

Subnets how many? Network Layer

IP addressing: CIDR CIDR: Classless InterDomain Routing
subnet portion of address of arbitrary length address format: a.b.c.d/x, where x is # bits in subnet portion of address subnet part host part /23 Network Layer

The old way: Internet Address Classes
Class A: Network prefix is 8 bits long Class B: Network prefix is 16 bits long Class C: Network prefix is 24 bits long

The old way: Internet Address Classes
We will learn about multicast addresses later in this course.

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: How does a host get IP address? hard-coded by system admin in a file Windows: control-panel->network->configuration->tcp/ip->properties UNIX: /etc/rc.config DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol: dynamically get address from as server “plug-and-play” Network Layer

DHCP: Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
goal: allow host to dynamically obtain its IP address from network server when it joins network can renew its lease on address in use allows reuse of addresses (only hold address while connected/“on”) support for mobile users who want to join network (more shortly) DHCP overview: host broadcasts “DHCP discover” msg [optional] DHCP server responds with “DHCP offer” msg [optional] host requests IP address: “DHCP request” msg DHCP server sends address: “DHCP ack” msg Network Layer

DHCP client-server scenario
/24 arriving DHCP client needs address in this network /24 /24 Network Layer

DHCP client-server scenario
DHCP server: DHCP discover src : , 68 dest.: ,67 yiaddr: transaction ID: 654 arriving client Broadcast: is there a DHCP server out there? DHCP offer src: , 67 dest: , 68 yiaddrr: transaction ID: 654 lifetime: 3600 secs Broadcast: I’m a DHCP server! Here’s an IP address you can use DHCP request src: , 68 dest:: , 67 yiaddrr: transaction ID: 655 lifetime: 3600 secs Broadcast: OK. I’ll take that IP address! DHCP ACK src: , 67 dest: , 68 yiaddrr: transaction ID: 655 lifetime: 3600 secs Broadcast: OK. You’ve got that IP address! Network Layer

DHCP: more than IP addresses
DHCP can return more than just allocated IP address on subnet: address of first-hop router for client name and IP address of DNS sever network mask (indicating network versus host portion of address) Network Layer

DHCP: example DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy DHCP DHCP connecting laptop needs its IP address, addr of first-hop router, addr of DNS server: use DHCP DHCP DHCP request encapsulated in UDP, encapsulated in IP, encapsulated in Ethernet DHCP DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy DHCP Ethernet frame broadcast (dest: FFFFFFFFFFFF) on LAN, received at router running DHCP server router with DHCP server built into router Ethernet demuxed to IP demuxed, UDP demuxed to DHCP Network Layer

DHCP: example DHCP DCP server formulates DHCP ACK containing client’s IP address, IP address of first-hop router for client, name & IP address of DNS server DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy encapsulation of DHCP server, frame forwarded to client, demuxing up to DHCP at client DHCP UDP IP Eth Phy DHCP DHCP router with DHCP server built into router client now knows its IP address, name and IP address of DSN server, IP address of its first-hop router DHCP Network Layer

DHCP: Wireshark output (home LAN)
Message type: Boot Reply (2) Hardware type: Ethernet Hardware address length: 6 Hops: 0 Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7 Seconds elapsed: 0 Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Client IP address: ( ) Your (client) IP address: ( ) Next server IP address: ( ) Relay agent IP address: ( ) Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Server host name not given Boot file name not given Magic cookie: (OK) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP ACK Option: (t=54,l=4) Server Identifier = Option: (t=1,l=4) Subnet Mask = Option: (t=3,l=4) Router = Option: (6) Domain Name Server Length: 12; Value: E F ; IP Address: ; IP Address: ; IP Address: Option: (t=15,l=20) Domain Name = "hsd1.ma.comcast.net." reply Message type: Boot Request (1) Hardware type: Ethernet Hardware address length: 6 Hops: 0 Transaction ID: 0x6b3a11b7 Seconds elapsed: 0 Bootp flags: 0x0000 (Unicast) Client IP address: ( ) Your (client) IP address: ( ) Next server IP address: ( ) Relay agent IP address: ( ) Client MAC address: Wistron_23:68:8a (00:16:d3:23:68:8a) Server host name not given Boot file name not given Magic cookie: (OK) Option: (t=53,l=1) DHCP Message Type = DHCP Request Option: (61) Client identifier Length: 7; Value: D323688A; Option: (t=50,l=4) Requested IP Address = Option: (t=12,l=5) Host Name = "nomad" Option: (55) Parameter Request List Length: 11; Value: 010F03062C2E2F1F21F92B 1 = Subnet Mask; 15 = Domain Name 3 = Router; 6 = Domain Name Server 44 = NetBIOS over TCP/IP Name Server …… request Network Layer

IP addresses: how to get one?
Q: how does network get subnet part of IP addr? A: gets allocated portion of its provider ISP’s address space ISP's block /20 Organization /23 Organization /23 Organization /23 … … …. Organization /23 Network Layer

Hierarchical addressing: route aggregation
hierarchical addressing allows efficient advertisement of routing information: Organization 0 /23 Organization 1 “Send me anything with addresses beginning /20” /23 Organization 2 /23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP . Internet Organization 7 /23 “Send me anything with addresses beginning /16” ISPs-R-Us Network Layer

Hierarchical addressing: more specific routes
ISPs-R-Us has a more specific route to Organization 1 Organization 0 /23 “Send me anything with addresses beginning /20” Organization 2 /23 . Fly-By-Night-ISP . Internet Organization 7 /23 “Send me anything with addresses beginning /16 or /23” ISPs-R-Us Organization 1 /23 Network Layer

IP addressing: the last word...
Q: how does an ISP get block of addresses? A: ICANN: Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers allocates addresses manages DNS assigns domain names, resolves disputes Network Layer

Invalid IP Address Range
/8 IP addresses: /12 IP addresses: /16 IP addresses: – These address used for local network Network Layer

NAT: network address translation
rest of Internet local network (e.g., home network) 10.0.0/24 all datagrams leaving local network have same single source NAT IP address: ,different source port numbers datagrams with source or destination in this network have /24 address for source, destination (as usual) Network Layer

motivation: local network uses just one IP address as far as outside world is concerned: range of addresses not needed from ISP: just one IP address for all devices can change addresses of devices in local network without notifying outside world can change ISP without changing addresses of devices in local network devices inside local net not explicitly addressable, visible by outside world (a security plus) Network Layer

implementation: NAT router must: outgoing datagrams: replace (source IP address, port #) of every outgoing datagram to (NAT IP address, new port #) . . . remote clients/servers will respond using (NAT IP address, new port #) as destination addr remember (in NAT translation table) every (source IP address, port #) to (NAT IP address, new port #) translation pair incoming datagrams: replace (NAT IP address, new port #) in dest fields of every incoming datagram with corresponding (source IP address, port #) stored in NAT table Network Layer

NAT translation table WAN side addr LAN side addr 1: host sends datagram to , 80 2: NAT router changes datagram source addr from , 3345 to , 5001, updates table , , 3345 …… …… S: , 3345 D: , 80 1 S: , 80 D: , 3345 4 S: , 5001 D: , 80 2 S: , 80 D: , 5001 3 4: NAT router changes datagram dest addr from , 5001 to , 3345 3: reply arrives dest. address: , 5001 Network Layer

16-bit port-number field: 60,000 simultaneous connections with a single LAN-side address! Network Layer

ICMP: internet control message protocol
used by hosts & routers to communicate network-level information error reporting: unreachable host, network, port, protocol echo request/reply (used by ping) network-layer “above” IP: ICMP msgs carried in IP datagrams ICMP message: type, code plus first 8 bytes of IP datagram causing error Type Code description echo reply (ping) dest. network unreachable dest host unreachable dest protocol unreachable dest port unreachable dest network unknown dest host unknown source quench (congestion control - not used) echo request (ping) route advertisement router discovery TTL expired bad IP header Network Layer

Traceroute and ICMP source sends series of UDP segments to dest
first set has TTL =1 second set has TTL=2, etc. unlikely port number when nth set of datagrams arrives to nth router: router discards datagrams and sends source ICMP messages (type 11, code 0) ICMP messages includes name of router & IP address when ICMP messages arrives, source records RTTs stopping criteria: UDP segment eventually arrives at destination host destination returns ICMP “port unreachable” message (type 3, code 3) source stops 3 probes 3 probes 3 probes Network Layer

IPv6: motivation initial motivation: 32-bit address space soon to be completely allocated. additional motivation: header format helps speed processing/forwarding header changes to facilitate QoS IPv6 datagram format: fixed-length 40 byte header no fragmentation allowed Network Layer

IPv6 datagram format priority: identify priority among datagrams in flow flow Label: identify datagrams in same “flow.” (concept of“flow” not well defined). next header: identify upper layer protocol for data ver pri flow label payload len next hdr hop limit source address (128 bits) destination address (128 bits) data 32 bits Network Layer

Other changes from IPv4 checksum: removed entirely to reduce processing time at each hop options: allowed, but outside of header, indicated by “Next Header” field ICMPv6: new version of ICMP additional message types, e.g. “Packet Too Big” multicast group management functions Network Layer

Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
not all routers can be upgraded simultaneously no “flag days” how will network operate with mixed IPv4 and IPv6 routers? tunneling: IPv6 datagram carried as payload in IPv4 datagram among IPv4 routers IPv4 header fields UDP/TCP payload IPv6 source dest addr IPv6 header fields IPv4 payload IPv4 source, dest addr IPv6 datagram IPv4 datagram Network Layer

connecting IPv6 routers
Tunneling logical view: IPv4 tunnel connecting IPv6 routers E IPv6 F A B A B IPv6 C D E IPv6 F physical view: IPv4 IPv4 Network Layer

connecting IPv6 routers
Tunneling logical view: IPv4 tunnel connecting IPv6 routers E IPv6 F A B A B IPv6 C D E IPv6 F physical view: IPv4 IPv4 flow: X src: A dest: F data A-to-B: IPv6 Flow: X Src: A Dest: F data src:B dest: E B-to-C: IPv6 inside IPv4 B-to-C: IPv6 inside IPv4 Flow: X Src: A Dest: F data src:B dest: E E-to-F: IPv6 flow: X src: A dest: F data Network Layer

IPv6: adoption US National Institutes of Standards estimate [2013]:
~3% of industry IP routers ~11% of US gov’t routers Long (long!) time for deployment, use 20 years and counting! think of application-level changes in last 20 years: WWW, Facebook, … Why? Network Layer

Interplay between routing, forwarding
routing algorithm determines end-end-path through network routing algorithm forwarding table determines local forwarding at this router local forwarding table dest address output link address-range 1 address-range 2 address-range 3 address-range 4 3 2 1 IP destination address in arriving packet’s header 1 2 3 Network Layer

Graph abstraction z x u y w v 5 2 3 1 graph: G = (N,E)
N = set of routers = { u, v, w, x, y, z } E = set of links ={ (u,v), (u,x), (v,x), (v,w), (x,w), (x,y), (w,y), (w,z), (y,z) } aside: graph abstraction is useful in other network contexts, e.g., P2P, where N is set of peers and E is set of TCP connections Network Layer

Graph abstraction: costs
u y x w v z 2 1 3 5 c(x,x’) = cost of link (x,x’) e.g., c(w,z) = 5 cost could always be 1, or inversely related to bandwidth, or inversely related to congestion cost of path (x1, x2, x3,…, xp) = c(x1,x2) + c(x2,x3) + … + c(xp-1,xp) key question: what is the least-cost path between u and z ? routing algorithm: algorithm that finds that least cost path Network Layer

Routing algorithm classification
Q: global or decentralized information? global: all routers have complete topology, link cost info “link state” algorithms decentralized: router knows physically-connected neighbors, link costs to neighbors iterative process of computation, exchange of info with neighbors “distance vector” algorithms Q: static or dynamic? static: routes change slowly over time dynamic: routes change more quickly periodic update in response to link cost changes Network Layer

A Link-State Routing Algorithm
Dijkstra’s algorithm net topology, link costs known to all nodes accomplished via “link state broadcast” all nodes have same info computes least cost paths from one node (‘source”) to all other nodes gives forwarding table for that node iterative: after k iterations, know least cost path to k dest.’s notation: c(x,y): link cost from node x to y; = ∞ if not direct neighbors D(v): current value of least cost of path from source to dest. v p(v): predecessor node along path with least cost from source to v N': set of nodes whose least cost path definitively known Network Layer

Dijsktra’s Algorithm 1 Initialization: 2 N' = {u} 3 for all nodes v
if v adjacent to u then D(v) = c(u,v) else D(v) = ∞ 7 8 Loop 9 find w not in N' such that D(w) is a minimum 10 add w to N' 11 update D(v) for all v adjacent to w and not in N' : D(v) = min( D(v), D(w) + c(w,v) ) 13 /* new cost to v is either old cost to v or known shortest path cost to w plus cost from w to v */ 15 until all nodes in N' Network Layer

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example
D(v) p(v) D(w) p(w) D(x) p(x) D(y) p(y) D(z) p(z) Step N' u ∞ 7,u 3,u 5,u 1 uw ∞ 11,w 6,w 5,u 2 uwx 14,x 11,w 6,w 3 uwxv 14,x 10,v 4 uwxvy 12,y 5 uwxvyz w 3 4 v x u 5 7 y 8 z 2 9 notes: construct shortest path tree by tracing predecessor nodes ties can exist (can be broken arbitrarily) Network Layer

Dijkstra’s algorithm: another example
Step 1 2 3 4 5 N' u ux uxy uxyv uxyvw uxyvwz D(v),p(v) 2,u D(w),p(w) 5,u 4,x 3,y D(x),p(x) 1,u D(y),p(y) ∞ 2,x D(z),p(z) ∞ 4,y u y x w v z 2 1 3 5 Network Layer

Dijkstra’s algorithm: example (2)
resulting shortest-path tree from u: u y x w v z resulting forwarding table in u: v x y w z (u,v) (u,x) destination link Network Layer

Distance vector algorithm
Bellman-Ford equation (dynamic programming) let dx(y) := cost of least-cost path from x to y then dx(y) = min {c(x,v) + dv(y) } v cost from neighbor v to destination y cost to neighbor v min taken over all neighbors v of x Network Layer

Bellman-Ford example node achieving minimum is next
y x w v z 2 1 3 5 clearly, dv(z) = 5, dx(z) = 3, dw(z) = 3 B-F equation says: du(z) = min { c(u,v) + dv(z), c(u,x) + dx(z), c(u,w) + dw(z) } = min {2 + 5, 1 + 3, 5 + 3} = 4 node achieving minimum is next hop in shortest path, used in forwarding table Network Layer

Dx(y) = estimate of least cost from x to y x maintains distance vector Dx = [Dx(y): y є N ] node x: knows cost to each neighbor v: c(x,v) maintains its neighbors’ distance vectors. For each neighbor v, x maintains Dv = [Dv(y): y є N ] Network Layer

key idea: from time-to-time, each node sends its own distance vector estimate to neighbors when x receives new DV estimate from neighbor, it updates its own DV using B-F equation: Dx(y) ← minv{c(x,v) + Dv(y)} for each node y ∊ N Network Layer

z y x Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)} = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 node x table cost to cost to x y z x y z x x 2 3 y from ∞ ∞ ∞ from y z z ∞ ∞ ∞ node y table cost to x z 1 2 7 y x y z x ∞ ∞ ∞ y from z ∞ ∞ ∞ node z table cost to x y z x ∞ ∞ ∞ from y ∞ ∞ ∞ z 7 1 time Network Layer

z y x Dx(z) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(z), c(x,z) + Dz(z)} = min{2+1 , 7+0} = 3
Dx(y) = min{c(x,y) + Dy(y), c(x,z) + Dz(y)} = min{2+0 , 7+1} = 2 node x table cost to cost to cost to x y z x y z x y z x x 2 3 x y y from ∞ ∞ ∞ from y from z z ∞ ∞ ∞ z node y table cost to cost to x z 1 2 7 y cost to x y z x y z x y z x ∞ ∞ ∞ x x y y from from y from z z ∞ ∞ ∞ z node z table cost to cost to cost to x y z x y z x y z x x x ∞ ∞ ∞ from y y from y from ∞ ∞ ∞ z z z 7 1 time time Network Layer

Chapter 4 Network Layer Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 6th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012 Network Layer.

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Chapter 4 Network Layer Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach 6th edition Jim Kurose, Keith Ross Addison-Wesley March 2012 Network Layer.

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