1. Chapter 12: Human Remains
“There is a brief but very informative biography of an individual contained within the skeleton, if you know how to read it…”
—Clyde Snow, Forensic Anthropologist

2. Autopsies Performed by a pathologist
Determines the time of death. This can be done most accurately if the body is found within the first 24 hours of death
Uses certain indicators such as algor, livor and rigor mortis.

3. Rigor Mortis The rigidity of skeletal muscles after death.
Temperature Stiffness Approximate Time
of body of body Since Death
Warm
Cold
Not stiff
Stiff
Not dead more than 3 hrs
Dead between 3 and 8 hrs
Dead 8 to 30 hours
Dead more than 30 hours

4. Livor Mortis
Livor mortis is the settling of blood, resulting in a reddish or purplish color pattern.
Lividity can indicate the position of the body after death. When lividity becomes fixed, then the distribution of the pattern will not change even if the body’s position is altered.
Lividity usually becomes fixed (unable to blanche) between 10 and 15 hours after death.
If body is blanchable, it is less than hours old

5. Algor Mortis Algor mortis is the cooling rate of the body after death.
At a crime scene, the body temperature is obtained through:
Liver temperature
Glaister equation:
98.4°F - liver temperature/1.5 = hours elapsed since death
Generally the body cools 1 to ½ degrees Fahrenheit per hour until it reaches the surrounding temperature.
Rate of cooling can change depending on the surroundings

6. Forensic Entomology
Insects as Evidence

7. Insects as Evidence
Forensic entomologists use their knowledge of insects and their life cycles and behaviors to give them clues about a crime.
Most insects used in investigations are in two major orders:
1 – Flies
2 – Beetles
Blow Fly
Carrion Beetle
Species succession provide clues for investigators.
-Some species may to feed on a fresh corpse, while another species may prefer to feed on one that has been dead for two weeks.
-Investigators will also find other insect species that prey on the insects feeding on the corpse.

8. Other Factors to Consider
Weather data is also an important tool in analyzing insect evidence from a corpse.
Temperature and precipitation levels affect how insects will develop on the body
Other factors that might affect their estimates:
Was the body enclosed in an area or wrapped in a material that would have prevented flies from finding the corpse and laying eggs?
Were other insect species present that may have affected the development of the collected species?
Were there drugs or other poisons in or on the body that might have affected the larvae’s development?
Did you know? Maggots can be used to test a corpse for the presence of poisons or drugs. Some drugs can speed up or slow down the insect’s development.

9. Blow Fly Metamorphosis
Blow flies are attracted to dead bodies and often arrive within minutes of the death of an animal.
Adult
1st – Adult flies lay eggs on the carcass especially at wound areas or around the openings in the body
2nd – Eggs hatch into larva (maggots) in hours.
3rd– Larvae continue to grow and molt (shed their exoskeletons) as they pass through the various instar stages.
1st Instar - 5 mm long after 1.8 days
2nd Instar - 10 mm long after 2.5 days
3rd Instar – mm long after 4-5 days
4th – The larvae develop into pupa after burrowing in surrounding soil.
5th – Adult flies emerge from pupa cases after 6-8 days.
Pupa
Eggs
3rd Instar Larva
1st Instar Larva
2nd Instar Larva
It takes approximately days from egg to adult depending on the temperatures and humidity levels at the location of the body.

10. Examples of Beetles Early Stage Decomposition
Early to Late Stage Decomposition
Rove Beetles
(Staphylinidae)
Predator of fly eggs
Clown Beetles
(Histeridae)
Predator of fly eggs
Carrion Beetles (Silphidae) Adults & larvae feed on fly larvae
Late Stage Decomposition
Ham & Checkered Beetles (Cleridae) Predator of flies & beetles;
also feed on dead tissue
Hide Beetles (Scarabidae) Usually the last to arrive
Skin Beetles (Dermestidae) Feed on dried skin & tissues
Informational Source:
Images: &

11. Forensic Anthropology in real life
Bill Bass is a forensic anthropologist who has assisted law enforcement with hundreds of cases. He established the world’s first and only laboratory devoted to the study of human decomposition at the University of Tennessee’s Anthropology Research Facility.
It is known as “the body farm.”

12. The Body Farm
The nickname of a two and a half acre research facility in Tennessee developed in 1980 by Bill Bass where bodies are placed in various conditions and allowed to decompose. Its main purpose is to observe and understand the processes and timetable of postmortem decay. Over the years it has helped to improve the ability to determine "time since death" in murder cases.
“Hic locus est ubi mortui viveuntes docent.”
This is the place where the dead teach the living.

13. Forensic Anthropology
Forensic anthropology is a type of applied anthropology that specializes in the changes and variations in the human skeleton for the purpose of legal inquiry

14. Forensic Anthropology
A forensic anthropologist may provide basic identification information of skeletonized or badly decomposed remains.
From a whole bone or part of a bone, the scientist may be able to determine:
An age range
Sex
Race
Approximate height
Cause of death, disease, or anomaly

15. Osteology Study of bones 206 bones in an adult human
Function of bones:
Provides structure and rigidity
Protects soft tissue and organs
Serves as an attachment for muscles
Produces blood cells
Serves as a storage area for minerals
Can detoxify the body by removing heavy metals and other foreign elements from the blood

16. Age Determination Most accurate estimations from:
Teeth
Epiphyses (bone growth plates)
Pubic symphysis (hips)
Cranial sutures: the three major cranial sutures appear as distinct lines in youth and gradually close from the inside out.
**Investigators always use an age range because of the variation in people and how they age.

17. Age Determination Using Cranial Sutures
Sagittal suture
Sagittal suture completely closed
Males—26 or older
Female—29 or older
Sagittal suture is completely open
Male—less than 32
Female—less than 35
Complete closure of all three major sutures
Male—over 35
Female—over 50
Coronal
Lambodial

18. Gender Differences Gender can be determined by examining:
Skull Features
Pubis (hip bones)
Relative size of bones
Males are larger than females

19. Gender Differences in Bones
The pelvis of the female is wider. Males have a narrow subpubic angle (A) and a narrow pubic body (B).

20. Male Female
Sub Pubic Angle

21. Gender Differences
The ribcage and shoulders of males are generally wider and larger than that of females.

22. Race Characteristics
The skull is particularly useful in determining race if needed
Race
Nasal Passage
Orbital (Eye) Sockets
Asians
Rounded
Africans
Wide
Square
Caucasians
Narrow
Angular

23. CAUCASIAN
Angular Oval Orbits
Long, narrow nasal aperture

24. Asian
Rounded Orbits
Rounded nasal aperture

25. African
Square Orbits
Wide Nasal Aperture

26. What differences do you notice between these three skulls
What differences do you notice between these three skulls? Can you determine race?
Caucasian
African
Asian

27. Estimation of Height Male Female .
The height of a person can be calculated by using the length of long bones.
Femur, humerus, radius and tibia
Below are the equations to determine average measurements for both male and female.
(All measurements are in centimeters)
Male Female
femur x femur x
tibia x tibia x
humerus x humerus x
radius x radius x

28. Facial Restoration Used with unidentified remains
Helps give a proportioning of facial features to help in recognition
-Does not give a full accurate depiction of the actual appearance of the deceased.
After determining the sex, age, and race of an individual, facial features can be built upon a skull to assist in identification. Erasers are used to make tissue depths at various points on the skull. Clay is used to build around these markers and facial features are molded.

29. Animal Facial Restoration
Determining what T Rex looked like using the bone formation.
From this: To this:
Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company

30. Unit 3: Blood Types/DNA/Spatter

31. Serology Serology is the examination and analysis of body fluids.
Chapter 10
Serology
Serology is the examination and analysis of body fluids.
A forensic serologist may analyze a variety of body fluids including saliva, semen, urine, and blood.
With the development of DNA techniques, more time, money, and significance were placed on developing DNA labs.
-However, with limited funds and the time required for DNA testing, most labs still use many of the basic serology testing procedures.
Kendall/HUnt

32. Blood Characteristics
Chapter 10
Blood Characteristics
Plasma is the fluid portion of the blood (55%)
Cells (45%)
Erythrocytes are red blood cells. They are responsible for oxygen distribution.
Leukocytes are the white blood cells; they are responsible for “cleaning” the system of foreign invaders.
Thrombocytes are platelets responsible for blood clotting.
Serum is the liquid that separates from the blood when a clot is formed.
Kendall/HUnt

33. Human versus Animal Blood
Chapter 10
Human versus Animal Blood
Animal Blood
Human Blood
Red blood cells are most numerous; 5 to 6 million per mm3
White blood cells are larger and less numerous; 5,000 to 10,000 per mm3
Platelets are tiny, cellular fragments; 350,000 to 500,000 per mm3
Larger nucleic red blood cells
Frog blood
Kendall/HUnt

34. Blood Types

35. Blood Typing Terminology
Chapter 10
Blood Typing Terminology
ABO blood groups—based on having A, B, both, or no antigens on red blood cells
Rh factor—may be present on red blood cells; positive if present and negative if not
Antigen—a substance that can stimulate the body to make antibodies. Certain antigens (proteins) found in the plasma of the red blood cell’s membrane account for blood type.
Antibody—a substance that reacts with an antigen
Agglutination—clumping of red blood cells; will result if blood types with different antigens are mixed
Kendall/HUnt

36. Chapter 10
Blood Typing
Blood type A has antigen A on the surface of the cell and will agglutinate with blood type B.
Blood type B has antigen B on the surface of the cell and will agglutinate with blood type A.
Blood type AB has antigens A and B on the surface of the cells
will not agglutinate if type AB receives any other type
Will agglutinate if donated to any other type
Blood type O has neither antigen A nor B
will not agglutinate if donated to any type
Will agglutinate if type O receives any other type
Kendall/HUnt

37. Agglutination Blood Clotting due to mixing of blood types
Why you must be careful when receiving blood
The picture on the left shows blood agglutination.
-Would happen if Type A mixes with Type B
-Would happen if any other type is donated to O
-Would happen if AB donates to any other types
The picture on the right shows no signs of agglutination
-Would happen if A mixes with A
-Would happen if B mixes with B
-Would happen if O is donated to anything
-Would happen if AB receives anything

38. Blood Types and Donation
Chapter 10
Blood Types and Donation
Can Give
Blood To
Type
Antigen
Antibody
Can Get
Blood From A A B
A, AB
O, A B B A
B, AB
O, B
Neither
A nor B AB
A and B AB
A, B, O, AB
Neither
A nor B O
A and B
A, B, O, AB O
Kendall/HUnt

39. Population Distribution of Blood Types in the U.S.
Chapter 10
Population Distribution of Blood Types in the U.S.
Type
Percent O 45 A 40 B 11 AB 4
Kendall/HUnt

40. Rh Factor -Another antigen that can be present + CANNOT donate to –
– CAN donate to +

41. Putting it All Together
O- is the universal donor
AB+ is the universal acceptor

42. Genotypes for blood type
ALLELE
CODES FOR IA
Type A Blood IB
Type B Blood i
Type O Blood
Type O is the recessive blood type, which is why it gets a lowercase (i).

43. Genotypes & Phenotypes of Blood
IAIA
Type A - Homozygous
IAi
Type A - Heterozygous
IAIB
Type AB - Heterozygous
IBIB
Type B - Homozygous
IBi
Type B - Heterozygous ii
Type O – Homozygous recessive

44. Example Problem: IB i IAIB IAi IA
Dad is homozygous for Type A blood. Mom is heterozygous for Type B blood. Do a Punnett Square to find out the offspring.
IB i
IAIB
IAi
Child Genotypes and Phenotypes
IAIB Type AB (50%)
IAi Type A (50%) IA

45. DNA Analysis

46. General DNA Information
Double helix—two coiled DNA strands
In humans, the order of these bases is 99.9% the same.
Four bases
Adenine
Cytosine
Guanine
Thymine

47. DNA Base Pair Matching Bases always pair A to T and G to C
Original DNA Strand: AATCAGTCG
Complimentary Strand: TTAGTCAGC
You Try it!
Original: TCCGATTCAAG
Complimentary Strand: __________________

48. Types of DNA Nuclear Mitochondrial In all nucleated cells
Inherited 50% from each parent
Mitochondrial
In all cells
Inherited ONLY FROM MOTHER

49. Where Is DNA Found? Nuclear DNA is found in all nucleated body cells—
white blood cells
Semen
Saliva
Urine
hair root
Teeth
Bone
Tissue
Cheek cells are the most common site for DNA sampling
Red blood cells have no nuclei = no nuclear DNA
DNA obtained from blood comes from white blood cells

50. DNA Typing
DNA typing is a method in which DNA is converted into a series of bands that ultimately distinguish each individual.
Only .1% of DNA differs from one person to the next.
-Scientists use these regions to generate a DNA profile of an individual.

51. Uses of DNA Profiling To identify potential suspects
To exonerate individuals
To identify crime and casualty victims
To establish paternity
To match organ donors

52. DNA TYPING “Fingerprinting”
PCR—Polymerase Chain Reaction

53. PCR—Polymerase Chain Reaction
PCR is a technique used for making copies of a defined segment of a DNA molecule.
This can be valuable when the amount of evidence is minimal.
Millions of copies of DNA can be made from a single speck of blood.

54. Intro to Gel Electrophoresis

55. Electrophoresis A technique used to separate DNA fragments.
An electrical current is moved through a gel substance causing molecules to sort by size.
The smaller, lighter molecules will move the furthest on the gel.

56. Electrophoresis Step 1: Pipette the DNA.
Step 2: Load DNA into the gel wells.
Step 3: Run the gel.
Step 4: Observe and compare bands of DNA.

57. Three Possible Outcomes
Match—The DNA profile appears the same. Lab will determine the frequency.
Exclusion—The comparison shows profile differences that can only be explained by the two samples originating from different sources.
Inconclusive—The data does not support a conclusion as to whether the profiles match.

58. Reading Results Practice

59. Who Should be arrested?

60. FBI’s CODIS DNA Database
Combined DNA Index System
Used for linking serial crimes and unsolved cases with repeat offenders
Launched October 1998
Links all 50 states

61. Blood Spatter Analysis

62. Blood Spatter Evidence
Chapter 10
Blood Spatter Evidence
A field of forensic investigation that deals with:
Physical properties of blood
Patterns produced under different conditions as a result of various forces being applied to the blood.
Considered circumstantial and class evidence
Blood, as a fluid, follows the laws of physics.
Kendall/HUnt

63. Blood Droplet Characteristics
Chapter 10
Blood Droplet Characteristics
A blood droplet remains spherical in space until it collides with a surface.
Once a blood droplet impacts a surface, a bloodstain is formed.
Droplets falling from the same height, hitting the same surface at the same angle, will produce stains with the same basic shape.
Kendall/HUnt

64. Questions Answered by Blood Spatter Interpretation
Chapter 10
Questions Answered by Blood Spatter Interpretation
The distance between the target surface and the origin of the blood
The point(s) of origin of the blood
Movement and direction of a person or an object
The number of blows causing the bloodshed
Type and direction of impact
The position of the victim and/or object during bloodshed
Movement of the victim and/or object after bloodshed
Kendall/HUnt

65. Conditions Affecting Shape of Blood Droplet
Chapter 10
Conditions Affecting Shape of Blood Droplet
Direction
Angle of impact
Velocity at which the blood droplet left its origin
Height from where blood dropped
Kendall/HUnt

67. Blood Stain Patterns-Velocity
Chapter 10
Blood Stain Patterns-Velocity
Kendall/HUnt

68. Bloodstain Patterns-Direction
Chapter 10
Bloodstain Patterns-Direction
The pointed end of the bloodstain faces the direction of travel.
If there is more than one drop, you can determine point of origin (where direction lines intersect)
Kendall/HUnt

69. Bloodstain Patterns-Height
Chapter 10
Bloodstain Patterns-Height
Higher drop point = larger spatter
Diameter increases
Kendall/HUnt

70. Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact
Chapter 10
Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact
The shape of a blood drop:
Round—if it falls straight down at a 90-degree angle
Elliptical—blood droplets elongate as the angle decreases from 90 to 0 degrees; the angle can be determined by the following formula:
Width
Length
Kendall/HUnt

71. Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact
Chapter 10
Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact
The more acute the angle of impact, the more elongated the stain.
90-degree angles are perfectly round drops
80-degree angles take on a more elliptical shape.
At about 30 degrees and below the stain will begin to produce a tail.
Kendall/HUnt

72. Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact PRACTICE
Chapter 10
Bloodstain Patterns-Angle of Impact PRACTICE
1) Measure width and length
2) Divide the length by the width
3) take the sin-1 of that number
Try with the above blood drops to see if your work matches the actual angle of impact
Width
Length
Kendall/HUnt