1. Chapter 7 & 8: Memory, Thinking, Language, Intelligence
Test your memory
Chapter 7 & 8: Memory, Thinking, Language, Intelligence
AP Psychology

2. The Nature of Memory Memory Constructive Process
Internal record or representation of some prior event or experience
Memories are NOT exact recordings of events
Constructive Process
Organizing and shaping of information during processing, storage, and retrieval of memories

3. Models of Memory Information-Processing Model
Information that we encounter goes through 3 basic operations
Encoding: Processing information into the memory system
Storage: Retaining information over time
Retrieval: Recovering information from memory storage

4. Models of Memory Parallel Distributed Processing Model
Memory results from weblike connections among interacting processing units operating simultaneously, rather than sequentially
What does this mean??
When you encounter information, you don’t analyze it one piece at a time, you take in several features at the same time!
Ex: Seeing a shark in the ocean

5. Models of Memory Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model
Memory requires three difference stages to hold and process information for various lengths of time
Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory

6. Three-Stage Memory Model
Sensory Memory
First memory stage that holds sensory information; relatively large capacity, but duration is only a few seconds (just long enough to locate relevant bits of data to transfer to longer memory)
Iconic Memory: visual information
Lasts about half a second
Echoic Memory: auditory information
Lasts up to 4 seconds

7. Three-Stage Memory Model
Short-Term Memory (STM)
Second memory stage that temporarily stores sensory information and decides whether to send it on to Long-Term Memory (LTM)
Capacity is limited to 5 to 9 items, and duration is about 30 seconds
How to make it last longer? Hold more?
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repeating information over and over to maintain it in STM
Chunking: Grouping separate pieces of information into a single unit (or chunk)

8. Three-Stage Memory Model
Long-Term Memory
Third stage of memory that stores information for long periods of time
Its capacity is virtually limitless and its duration is relatively permanent
2 Types of Long-Term Memory

9. Long-Term Memory Explicit (Declarative) Memory
Type of long-term memory that consciously stores facts, information, and personal life experiences
Ex: Social security number, state capitals, etc.
Semantic Memory: Stores general knowledge
Episodic Memory: Stores memories of personally experienced events

10. What do we encode? Semantic Encoding Acoustic Encoding Visual Encoding
Meaning of words
Acoustic Encoding
Sound of words
Visual Encoding
How words look

11. Long-Term Memory Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory
Type of long-term memory consisting of unconscious procedural skills and simple classically conditioned responses
Memory without awareness!
Ex: Tying shoes, riding a bike, brushing teeth, fear reaction to snakes

12. How to Improve Memory Encoding
Levels of Processing: Degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered
Deeper levels of processing = more remembering!
Elaborative Rehearsal: Linking new information to previously stored material
Not just repeating, but trying to make sense of it all

13. Retrieval Serial Position Effect
Information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle
Primacy Effect: Info at beginning remembered
Recency Effect: Info at end remembered

14. Retrieval Retrieval Cue Recall Recognition
Clue or prompt that helps stimulate retrieval of a stored piece of information from LTM
Recall
Retrieving a memory using a general cue (vague, not giving much information)
Ex: Fill-in-the-blank quiz
Recognition
Retrieving a memory using a specific cue
Ex: Multiple-choice quiz

15. Retrieval Priming Encoding Specificity Principle
Activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
Ex: Smell the cologne of an ex-boyfriend, start thinking about a movie you saw with him
Ex: Deja-Vu?
Encoding Specificity Principle
Retrieval of info is improved when current conditions are similar to conditions when it was encoded
Context-dependent, mood congruence, state- dependent

16. Forgetting Hermann Ebbinghaus – 1885
Memorized nonsense 3 letter words (SIB, RAL…)
Knew it perfectly, then measured how many were remembered an hour later, a day later, and a week later
Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve
Forgetting is rapid at first! Then slows down over time.
Relearning takes less time than initial learning

17. Forgetting Curve for Spanish

18. Why do we forget?
Decay Theory: connections between neurons deteriorate over time if not used
Interference Theory: two memories are competing
Retroactive Interference: New information interferes with remembering old
Proactive Interference: Old information interferes with remembering new

19. Why do we forget?
Motivated Forgetting Theory: according to Freud, we forget unpleasant or anxiety producing info either consciously or unconsciously
Encoding Failure Theory: info gets to STM, but is not encoded for storage in LTM (not important enough, not rehearsed)
Retrieval Failure Theory: memories are momentarily inaccessible (tip-of-the- tongue phenomenon)

20. Key Factors in Forgetting
Misinformation Effect
Distortion of a memory by misleading post-event information
False memories based on cues (“How fast was the car going when it smashed into the other?”)
Source Amnesia
Forgetting the true source of a memory
“I saw it on CNN” when really heard it from a friend

21. Key Factors in Forgetting
Sleeper Effect
Info from an unreliable source, which was initially discounted, later gains credibility because the source is forgotten
Information Overload
Massed Practice: time spent learning is grouped into long, unbroken intervals (CRAMMING)
Distributed Practice: practice/study sessions are interspersed with rest periods

22. Biological Basis of Memory
Learning and remembering modifies the brain’s neural networks
Long-Term Potentiation
Prolonged strengthening of neural firing
Repeated stimulation causes dendrites to grow, ability of neurons to accept or release NTs can be changed

23. Biological Basis of Memory
Flashbulb Memories
Vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events
Ex: 9/11, moonwalk, assassinations
Strong hormones emitted, repeated images in mind
STILL might not be 100% accurate!

24. Biological Causes of Memory Loss
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Skull has a collision with another object
Ex: Car accidents, falls, gunshots, etc.
Amnesia
Loss of memory as a result of brain injury/trauma
Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of memory for events that occurred before the injury
Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after a brain injury

25. Biological Causes of Memory Loss
Alzheimer’s Disease
Progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss
Occurs most commonly later in life

26. Biological Causes of Memory Loss
Karl Lashley – 1950
Wanted to know where memories are located
Studied rats who had learned a maze
Lesioned a part of the brain, watched in maze
What he found?
No localized memories! Rats could still go through the maze even with parts of the brain removed