1. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Computing Before Computers A Look at the History of Educational Technology
Jesse M. Heines, Ed.D.
Dept. of Computer Science
Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

2. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Yikes!
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

3. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Can we
make better use of educational technology by studying its past? 3
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

4. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Predicting the Future
Anyone who tries to draw the future in hard lines and vivid hues is a fool. The future will not sit for a portrait. It will come around a corner we never noticed, take us by surprise.
– George Leonard, 1968 Education and Ecstasy
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

5. Educational Device Wish List
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Educational Device Wish List
Easy-To-Use – no training needed
Easy-To-Read – typeset-quality text
Flexible – graphics and images
Small – carry in a pocket
Portable – doesn’t need to be plugged in, doesn’t even need batteries
Reliable – never breaks down
Durable – different students can share it and it can be reused year after year
Inexpensive – under $5/student
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

6. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
The Bible of 42 Lines
printed 1456 6
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

7. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Johannes Gutenberg 1456
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

8. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Monitorial School 1839
Joseph Lancaster,
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

9. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
St. Louis Museum 1905 9
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

10. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Cleveland Museum 1909
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

11. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Maria Montessori
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

12. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Montessori Method 1911
Respect for the learner’s individuality
Encouragement of the learner’s freedom
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

13. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
John Dewey
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

14. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Dewey Psychology 1896
Stimulus and response are not fully independent events, they are organically related
Learning involves two-way interaction between learners and their environment
Learners’ experiences within their environments are the basis of the meanings they deduce and the goals and actions they pursue
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

15. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Edward L. Thorndike
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

16. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Thorndike Laws 1913
Law of Exercise
The more often a stimulus-induced response is repeated, the longer it will be retained.
Law of Effect
A response is strengthened if followed by pleasure and weakened if followed by displeasure.
Law of Readiness
In any given situation, certain “units” are more predisposed to conduct than others due to the structure of the nervous system.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

17. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Thorndike Principles 1913
Self-activity
Interest (motivation)
Preparation and mental set
Individualization
Socialization
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

18. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Jean Piaget
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

19. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Piaget Conservation 1969
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

20. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Piaget Conservation 1969
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

21. Thorndike on Technology
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Thorndike on Technology
If, by a miracle of mechanical ingenuity, a book could be so arranged that only to him who had done what was directed on page one would page two become visible, and so on, much that now requires personal instruction could be managed by print.
– Education, 1912
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

22. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Sidney L. Pressey 1924
A self-scoring multiple-choice apparatus
that gives tests and scores – and teaches
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

23. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Sidney L. Pressey 1926
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

24. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Sidney L. Pressey 1927
A multiple-choice device that omits items
from further presentation once the student
can consistently answer them correctly.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

25. Pressey Variant by Skinner
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Pressey Variant by Skinner
1958
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

26. Rheem-Califone Variant
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Rheem-Califone Variant
1959
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

27. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Pressey Punch- board 1950 27
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

28. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Pressey Punchboard 1950
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

29. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
B.F. Skinner
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

30. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Questions 1953
What behavior is to be established?
What reinforcers are available?
What responses are available?
How can reinforcements be most efficiently scheduled?
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

31. Programmed Instruction
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Programmed Instruction
The whole process of becoming compe-tent in any field must be divided into a very large number of very small steps, and reinforcement must be contingent upon the accomplishment of each step... By making each successive step as small as possible, the frequency of reinforcement can be raised to a maximum, while the possible aversive consequences of being wrong are reduced to a minimum.
– Science and Human Behavior, 1953
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

32. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Machine 1954
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

33. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Machine 1954 33
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

34. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Disk 1958
Student at work in a self-instruction room. Material appears in the left-hand window. Student writes his response on a strip of paper exposed at the right.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

35. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Disk 1958
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

36. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Disk 1958 36
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

37. Skinner Variant by Porter
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner Variant by Porter
1958
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

38. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
James G. Holland 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

39. Holland Discrimination Task
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Holland Discrimination Task
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

40. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
“A Teaching Machine...
...for Lower Organisms”
Holland,
1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

41. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Skinner: “We’re Done”
There is a simple job to be done. The task can be stated in concrete terms. The necessary techniques are known. The equipment needed can easily be provided. Nothing stands in the way but cultural inertia.
– B.F. Skinner, 1954
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

42. Teaching Rats and Humans
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Teaching Rats and Humans
There is, to the best of my knowledge, no science of maze running to be taught The only reason a rat should turn to the right rather than the left at a certain point is that it is that turn which leads to reinforcement. No better reason can be learned because there is none.
Students sometimes pass courses in logic and mathematics in the same way. ...
– John W. Blyth, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

43. Teaching Rats and Humans
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Teaching Rats and Humans
A student who gives a particular response merely because that is the one the teacher reinforces has not learned a subject... The reason for giving some response must be more than the fact that it causes the teacher to say “correct.”
Our experience has convinced us that the most effective method of presenting a program of questions and answers is a machine using microfilm and designed for individual use.
– Heines paraphrase of Blyth, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

44. Teacher Super- vision Porter, 1958
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Teacher Super- vision Porter, 1958 44
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

45. Briggs Subj.-Matter Trainer
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Briggs Subj.-Matter Trainer
1958
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

46. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Enter the Computer
1959
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

47. Crowder Self-Instructional
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Crowder Self-Instructional
1960
“The program of materials presented can be arranged so that the presentation of new items depends upon the student’s own performance.”
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

48. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Adaption to Failure 48
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

49. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Adaption to Success 49
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

50. Intrinsic Programming 1
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Intrinsic Programming 1
Norman A. Crowder, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

51. Intrinsic Programming 2
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Intrinsic Programming 2
Norman A. Crowder, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

52. Intrinsic Programming 3
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Intrinsic Programming 3
Norman A. Crowder, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

53. Intrinsic Programming 4
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Intrinsic Programming 4
Norman A. Crowder, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

54. Intrinsic Programming 5
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Intrinsic Programming 5
Norman A. Crowder, 1960
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

55. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Types of Test Error
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

56. Type I: False Negative Error
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Type I: False Negative Error
True master classified as a non-master
Student takes unneeded instruction
Less serious than a Type II error
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

57. Type II: False Positive Error
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Type II: False Positive Error
True non-master classified as a master
Student skips needed instruction
More serious than a Type I error
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

58. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model
To minimize the probability of an error, we use a decision model that takes these error conditions into account.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

59. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 1
Standard Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
100% Correct
Mastery and
Non-Mastery
Criterion Score
0% Correct
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

60. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 2
Basic Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
100% Correct
Mastery Criterion Score
Uncertainty Interval
Non-Mastery Criterion
Score
0% Correct
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

61. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 3
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
With Decision Certainty Factor Based on Test Length
100% Correct }
Mastery Criterion Score
Variable Size Uncertainty Interval
Non-Mastery Criterion
Score
0% Correct
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

62. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 4 }
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
For Tests 1-2 Items Long }
All scores fall within the uncertainty interval }
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

63. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 5 }
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
For Tests 4 Items Long }
Uncertainty interval }
25%
Non-Mastery Classification 0%
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

64. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 6 }
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
For Tests 6 Items Long } }
Uncertainty interval
33%
Non-Mastery Classification 0%
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

65. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 7
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
For Tests 9 Items Long }
100%
Mastery Classification } }
Uncertainty interval
40%
Non-Mastery Classification 0%
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

66. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Model 8
Sequential Testing Criterion-Referenced Decision Model
For Tests 15 Items Long
100%
Mastery Classification
90% }
Uncertainty interval
45%
Non-Mastery Classification 0%
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

67. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Influencing Factors
Fixed
Mastery Criterion
Non-Mastery Criterion
Allowable Probability of a Type I Error
Allowable Probability of a Type II Error
Variable
Test Length
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

68. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
For Pretests
Mastery Criterion 90%
Non-Mastery Criterion 65%
Type I Error Probability 0.025
Type II Error Probability 0.058
We want to be very sure the student is a master before letting instruction be skipped.
Note the low probability of a Type I (false positive) error.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

69. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
For Posttests
Mastery Criterion 85%
Non-Mastery Criterion 60%
Type I Error Probability 0.050
Type II Error Probability 0.104
The student has already gone through the material at least once, so the criteria can be loosened.
Note that the probability of a Type I error is twice as high as before.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

70. Pretest Decision Rules
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Pretest Decision Rules
Number of Items Answered Correctly
Number of Items Presented
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

71. Posttest Decision Rules
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Posttest Decision Rules
Number of Items Answered Correctly
Number of Items Presented
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

72. Decision Rules Compared
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Decision Rules Compared
Pretest
Posttest
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

73. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 1
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

74. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 2
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

75. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 3
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

76. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 4
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

77. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 5
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

78. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Technology’s Role 6
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

79. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
The Best Teacher
The best teacher uses books and appliances as well as his own insight, sympathy, and magnetism.
– Edward L. Thorndike Education , 1912
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

80. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Jesse M. Heines, Ed.D.
Dept. of Computer Science
Univ. of Massachusetts Lowell or
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

81. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Primary Reference 81
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

82. Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Primary References
Lumsdaine, A.A. and Glaser, Robert, Teaching Machines and Programmed Learning: A Source Book. National Education Association of the United States, Washington, D.C.
Saettler, Paul, A History of Instructional Technology. McGraw-Hill, Inc., New York, NY.
Saettler, Paul, The Evolution of American Educational Technology. Libraries Unlimited, Englewood, CO.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001

83. Some Secondary References
Computing Before Computers
Jesse M. Heines
Some Secondary References
Pressey, S.L., A simple apparatus which gives tests and scores – and teaches. School and Society 23:586, March 20, 1926.
Pressey, S.L., A machine for automatic teaching of drill material. School and Society 25:645, May 7, 1927.
Skinner, B.F., The science of learning and the art of teaching. Harvard Educational Review 24(2).
Skinner, B.F., Teaching machines. Science 128, October 24, 1958.
MIT CAES Tech Lunch, March 13, 2001