2. Reproductive Systems (Chapter 41, Pages 770-792)
41.1 How Animals Reproduce
41.2 Human Male Reproductive System
41.3 Human Female Reproductive System
41.4 Control of Human Reproduction
41.5 Sexually Transmitted Diseases

3. For an animal species to survive, individuals must reproduce.
There are 2 types of reproduction:
1. Sexual reproduction
2. Asexual reproduction

4. Male Reproductive system
(Fig.41.4 & Table 41.1 page 773)
The male gonads are paired testes, which are suspended within the sacs of the scrotum.
The scrotum helps regulate testicular temperature.
The testes Produce sperm and male sex hormones.
Sperm produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, and mature within the epididymides.
After maturation, the sperm enters the vas deferens, also called ductus deferens for storage.

5. Each vas deferens passes into the abdominal cavity, where it curves around the bladder and empties into an ejaculatory duct.
When a male becomes sexually aroused, the sperm enter the ejaculatory ducts and then the urethra, part of which is located within the penis.
The interstitial cells (Leydig cells) produce the androgens
(mainly the testosterone).
Testicular cancer is the most common type of cancer in young men between the ages of 15 and 34.

6. The Male Reproductive System

8. Production of Sperm (Fig.41.5 page 774).
Each testis is composed of compartments called lobules.
Each lobule contains 1-3 tightly coiled seminiferous tubules, which are packed with cells undergoing spermatogenesis, the production of sperm.
Sertoli cells, support, nourish the developing sperm, and regulate spermatogenesis.
It takes approximately 74 days for a spermatogonium to develop into sperm.

9. Mature sperm (spermatozoa) have 3 distinct parts:
1.The head
2.The middle piece
3.The tail

10. Testis and Sperm

11. The penis (Fig.41.6 page 775) Is the male organ of sexual intercourse.
Has a long shaft and an enlarged tip called the glans penis.
The glans penis is normally covered by a layer of skin called the foreskin.
3 cylindrical columns of spongy, erectile tissue containing distensible blood spaces extend through the shaft of the penis.
During sexual arousal, nervous reflexes cause an increase in arterial blood flow to the penis.

12. This increased blood flow fills the blood space in the erectile tissue, and the penis, which is normally limp (flaccid), stiffens and increases in size.
These changes are called erection.
Erectile dysfunction (formerly called impotency) is the inability to achieve or maintain an erection suitable for sexual intercourse. It may have a number of causes, including any condition that affects blood flow, certain medications or illicit drugs, and psychological factors. Can be treated by drugs as Viagra.

13. Penis Anatomy

14. Semen (Seminal fluid)
Is a thick, whitish fluid that contains sperm and secretion from 3 glands:
1.The paired seminal vesicles
Secrete a thick, viscous fluid containing nutrients (fructose).
The fluid also contains prostaglandins.
2.The prostate gland
It secretes a milky alkaline fluid believed to activate or increase
the motility of sperm.
By the age of 50, over half of all men experience a benign enlargement (hypertrophy) of the prostate gland that can result in an increased frequency of urination, and a weak urinary stream.
Also, after skin cancer, prostate cancer is the most common type of cancer among men.

15. 3.Bulbourethral glands
Produce a clear, viscous secretion known as pre-ejaculate.
An average male releases 2-5 ml of semen during orgasm.
The ejaculated semen of a normal human male contains between million sperm/ml, meaning there may be more than 400 million sperm released in one ejaculation.
If less than 25 million sperm/ml are released, infertility may result.
Fewer than 100 ever reach the vicinity of the egg, however, and only one sperm normally enters an egg.
With contractions of the female uterus, it takes sperm about 2hrs to reach the egg traveling approximately 12.5 cm/hr.

16. Hormonal Regulation in Males
(Fig.41.7 page 776)
The hypothalamus has the ultimate control of the testes’ sexual function.
The anterior pituitary produces 2 gonadotropic hormones:
1.FSH
2.LH
Inhibin is produced by seminiferous tubules.
All these hormones are involved in a negative feedback relationship that maintains the fairly constant production of sperm and testosterone.

17. Hormonal Control of Testes

18. Functions of Testosterone:
Is the main sex hormone in males.
Is essential for:
1. The normal development and functioning of the sexual
organs.
2. Maturation of sperm.
3. Brings about and maintains the male secondary sex
characteristics that develop at the time of puberty.

19. Female Reproductive System:
(Fig.41.8 &Table 41.2 page 777)
The ovaries
Produce the female sex hormones and a secondary oocyte each month.
The oviducts
Also called uterine or fallopian tubes.
Have fingerlike projections called fimbriae that sweep over the ovaries.
Are the location of fertilization.

20. The uterus
It is a thick-walled muscular organ.
Its narrow end is called the cervix.
The uterine lining is called the endometrium.
A small opening at the cervix leads to the vaginal canal.

21. The vagina
Its mucosal lining lies in folds and can distend.
It serves as birth canal.
It facilitate intercourse.
The residence of several different types of bacteria.

22. Female Reproductive System

25. The vulva
Is the external genital organs.
Composed of:
The mons pubis and 2 folds of skin called labia minora and labia majora are on either side of the urethral and vaginal openings.
Beneath the labia majora, pea-sized greater vestibular gland (Bartholin glands) open on either side of the vagina.
Bartholin glands keep the vulva moist and lubricated during intercouse.
At the juncture of the labia minora is the clitoris which has many sensory receptors that allow it to function as a sexually sensitive organ.

26. They alternate in producing one oocyte (ovum or egg) each month.
The ovaries
They alternate in producing one oocyte (ovum or egg) each month.
They also produce the female sex hormones during the ovarian cycle.
The ovarian cycle
(Fig.41.9 Page778, Fig page 779 &Table 41.3 page 780)
Oogenesis and Ovulation

27. Phases of the Ovarian cycle
The ovarian cycle has 3 phases:
1.Follicular phase: Days 1-13.
2.Ovulation: Day 14.
3.Luteal phase: Days 15-28

28. Ovarian Cycle

29. Hormonal Control of Ovaries

30. The Uterine cycle (Table 41.3 page 780 & Fig.41.11 page 779)
Estrogen and progesterone affect the endometrium of the uterus, causing the cyclical series of events known as the uterine cycle.
The 28-day cycle is divided into 3 phases as follows:
1. Menstruation: Days 1-5.
2.Proliferative phase: Days 6-13.
Ovulation usually occurs on the 14th day of the 28-day cycle.
3.Secretory phase: Days

31. Female Hormone Levels During the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles

33. Menstruation:
7-10 days before the start of menstruation, some women suffer from premenstrual syndrome (PMS).
Degenerating endometrium, mucus, and blood descend from the uterus, through the vagina, creating menstrual flow.
The first menstrual period is called menarche occurs between the ages of 11 and 12.
If it does not occur by age 16, or normal uterine cycles are interrupted for 6 months or more, amenorrhea exists.
Types of amenorrhea:
1.Primary amenorrhea
2.Secondary amenorrhea

34. Menopause
Usually occurs between ages 45 and 55.
It is the time in a woman's life when menstruation ceases because the ovaries are no longer functioning.
Fertilization and Pregnancy:
The placenta originates from both maternal and embryonic tissues.
No menstruation occurs during pregnancy.

35. Estrogen and Progesterone:
1. Estrogen is essential for the normal development and
functioning of the female reproductive organs.
2. Estrogen is largely responsible for the secondary sex
characteristics.

36. The female breast:
(Fig page 781)
Contains lobules, each with its own mammary duct.
A duct begins at the nipple and divides into numerous other ducts, which end in blind sacs called alveoli.
After skin cancer, breast cancer is the most common type of cancer in females.
Women should regularly check their breasts for lumps and other irregularities and have mammograms.
Although breast cancer genes have been described, most forms of breast cancer are nonhereditary.

37. Breast cancer treatments includes:
Traditional Surgery
Radiation
Chemotherapy
Hormonal Therapy
Targeted Therapy

38. Anatomy of the Breast

39. Control of Human Reproduction
Several means are available to dampen or enhance the human reproductive potential.
Birth Control Methods (Fig page 782)
Less Common Birth Control Methods:
1.Morning-after pill (emergency contraception)
2.Contraceptive vaccine

40. Various Birth Control Methods
1. Abstinence.
2. Intrauterine devices (mechanically prevent implantation
and can contain progesterone to prevent ovulation).
3. Vasectomy in males / Tubal ligation in females.
4. Hormone Skin Patch Female and Male Condom.
6. Diaphragm and Spermicidal Jelly.
7. Depo-Provera (a progesterone injection)
8. Oral Contraception (Birth Control Pills).

44. Reproductive Technologies
Infertility is the inability of a couple to achieve pregnancy after one year of regular, unprotected intercourse.
Causes of infertility in males
1. Low sperm count &/or
2. Large proportion of abnormal sperm.
Causes of infertility in females
1. Body weight
2. Blocked oviducts

45. Assisted Reproductive Technologies
Consist of techniques used to increase the chances of pregnancy.
1. Artificial Insemination by Donor (AID)
2. Intrauterine Insemination (IUI)
3. In Vitro Fertilization (IVF)
4. Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer (GIFT)
5. Surrogate Mothers
6. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI)

46. If all assisted reproductive technologies discussed were employed simultaneously, it would be possible for a baby to have
5 parents!!
1. Sperm donor,
2. Egg donor,
3. Surrogate mother,
4. Contracting mother,
5. Contracting father.

47. Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs)
Cause of the Disease
Name of the Disease
HIV(Human Immunodeficiency Virus)
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
HPV (Human Papilloma Virus)
Genital Warts
HSV-2 (Herpes Simplex Type 2)
Genital Herpes
Hepatitis A,B.Viruses.
Hepatitis
Tiny Bacteria; Chlamydia trachomatis
Chlamydia
Bacteria; Nisseria gonorrheae
Gonorrhea
Bacteria; Treponema pallidum
Syphilis
Bacteria; Gardnerella vaginalis
Bacterial vaginosis
Protozoan; Trichomonas vaginalis OR
Yeast; Candida albicans
Vaginitis