1. Volume 141, Issue 4, Pages 682-691 (May 2010)
Decision Making at a Subcellular Level Determines the Outcome of Bacteriophage Infection 
Lanying Zeng, Samuel O. Skinner, Chenghang Zong, Jean Sippy, Michael Feiss, Ido Golding 
Cell 
Volume 141, Issue 4, Pages (May 2010)
DOI: /j.cell
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2. Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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3. Figure 1
Assaying the Postinfection Decision with Single-Phage Resolution
(A) Fluorescence and DNA packaging efficiency of the gpD-mosaic phage (λLZ2). DAPI (4′,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole) was used to label the phage genome. Left two panels: YFP and DAPI signals from the phages under the fluorescence microscope. YFP and DAPI signals colocalize very well, and individual phages are easily distinguishable. Only ∼1% of the gpD-mosaic phage particles examined (12 out of 1080) lacked the DAPI signal (indicating that these particles did not successfully package the viral DNA or had already injected their DNA elsewhere). On the other hand, all the phage particles (1068 out of 1068) were well labeled by YFP, as each DAPI spot had a corresponding YFP spot. Right two panels: intensity histograms of the YFP and DAPI signals.
(B) A schematic description of our cell-fate assay. Multiple YFP-labeled phages simultaneously infect individual cells of E. coli. The postinfection fate can be detected in each infected cell. Choice of the lytic pathway is indicated by the intracellular production of new YFP-coated phages, followed by cell lysis. Choice of the lysogenic pathway is indicated by the production of mCherry from the PRE promoter, followed by resumed growth and cell division. The three stages of the process correspond to the three images seen in (C) below.
(C) Frames from a time-lapse movie depicting infection events (see also Movie S1). Shown is an overlay of the phase-contrast, mCherry, and YFP channels (YFP channel: sum of multiple z slices for t = 0; single z slice at later time frames). At t = 0 (left), two cells are seen each infected by a single phage (green spots), and one cell is infected by three phages. At t = 80 min (middle), the two cells infected by single phages have each gone into the lytic pathway, as indicated by the intracellular production of new phages (green). The cell infected by three phages has gone into the lysogenic pathway, as indicated by the production of mCherry from the PRE promoter (red). At t = 2 hr (right), the lytic pathway has resulted in cell lysis, whereas the lysogenic cell has divided. (Note: a number of unadsorbed phages were removed from the image for clarity; those can be seen in Movie S1.)
See also Figure S1, Table S1, and Movie S1.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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4. Figure 2 Infection Parameters Affecting Cell Fate
(A) The percentage of failed infections as a function of multiplicity of infection (MOI). Red line: fit to an exponent, suggesting a constant failure probability per phage.
(B) The percentage of nongrowing cells as a function of MOI. Red line: fit to a Hill function, suggesting a threshold response to the number of infecting phages.
(C) The percentage of cells undergoing lysogeny, as a function of the MOI. Filled squares: experimental data. Solid line: fit to a Hill function. Red: all cells (1706 cells). Blue: long cells (length ≥ population median, 879 cells). Green: short cells (length < population median, 827 cells). The lysogeny probability increases with MOI, and is higher for shorter cells compared to longer ones. Also shown (dotted lines) are control experiments yielding lysis only (infection at 40°C; bottom) or no lysis (infection of lysogens; top).
(D) Distribution of infecting phage position along the cell, for MOI = 1. Distance is measured from cell pole (0) to midcell (0.5). Approximately 66% of all phages infect at either the pole or midcell (future pole).
(E) The percentage of failed infections as a function of infecting phage position, for MOI = 1. Infections at the pole and midcell are less likely to fail than infections at other positions (20% versus 31%, p = 0.041).
In all plots, error bars denote standard error of the mean. Data are represented as mean ± SEM.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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5. Figure 3
Lysogeny Requires a Unanimous Decision by All Infecting Phages
(A) Two-dimensional color map depicting the probability of lysogeny as a function of MOI and normalized cell length (length divided by the population median). Left: experimental data (1072 cells). Center: theoretical model assuming that a unanimous decision by all phages is required for lysogeny. This model predicts f(m,l) = [f1(m/l)]m, where m = MOI and l = normalized cell length. f1(m/l) is derived from the data scaling observed in (C). Note the good agreement between theory and experiment. Right: theoretical model assuming a single decision at the whole-cell level, with f(m,l) = f(m/l). f(m/l) is derived from fitting the data in (B) to a single curve. Note that this model does much more poorly than the phage-decision model in capturing the topography of f(m,l), for example the position of the f = 0.5 contour line.
(B) Probability of lysogeny f as a function of viral concentration (m/l). The data from different MOIs (filled squares, different colors) do not collapse into a single curve, but instead can be fitted to the separate curves f(m,l) described in (A) (dotted lines).
(C) Scaled probability of lysogeny ([f(m,l)]1/m) as a function of viral concentration (m/l). Data from different MOIs (filled squares, different colors) collapse into a single curve, representing the probability of lysogeny for each individual infecting phage (f1), in a cell of length l infected by a total of m phages. f1 can be fitted to a Hill function, f1(m/l) = (m/l)h/(Kh+(m/l)h), with h = 2.07 ± 0.11, K = 1.17 ± 0.02 (SEM).
(D) Gene-expression trajectories of different cell populations following infection. Each line describes the average expression level of PRE and PR′ during the first 60 min after infection. Green squares, lytic cells, MOI = 1 (average of 19 cells). Red squares, lysogenic cells, MOI = 1 (average of 21 cells). Green triangles, lytic cells, MOI > 1 (average of 37 cells). Red triangles, lysogenic cells, MOI > 1 (average of 135 cells). As predicted by the phage-voting hypothesis, cells choosing lysis after infection by MOI > 1 phages exhibit on average an increased activity of PRE, suggesting a “mixed voting” inside the cell.
(E) Percentage of cells expressing the lysogeny promoter PRE, as a function of the number of infecting phages (MOI). Green squares, lytic cells, wild-type (total of 56 cells). Red squares, lysogenic cells, wild-type (total of 156 cells). Green triangles, lytic cells, dnaJ host (total of 34 cells). Red triangles, lysogenic cells, dnaJ host (total of 16 cells). Lines are a guide for the eye. When infecting a wild-type host, the fraction of lytic cells expressing PRE rises sharply at MOI > 1, suggesting a mixed voting inside the cell. When infecting a dnaJ host, the voting rule changes such that even a single phage choosing lysogeny leads to whole-cell lysogeny. In that case, no mixed voting is seen among cells choosing lysis. Cells choosing lysogeny express PRE at all MOIs in both hosts. Data are represented as mean ± SEM.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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6. Figure 4
The Precision of the Single-Phage Decision Is Lost at the Single-Cell Level
(A) The probability of lysogeny as a function of the relevant input parameter, at the single-phage (left, red; input is viral concentration m/l), single-cell (middle, blue; input is MOI of the individual cell), and population-average (right, green; input is the average MOI over all cells) levels. Circles: experimental data. Solid lines: theoretical prediction, fitted to a Hill function. The decision becomes more “noisy” (lower Hill coefficient) when moving from the single-phage to the single-cell level. Moving from the single cell to the population average does not decrease the Hill coefficient further.
(B) The same trend can be observed by plotting the “response function” R(x) = ∂f(x)/∂(log(x)) at each resolution level. R(x) describes the range of input parameters x where both cell fates coexist (and therefore the decision can be said to be noisy). Single-cell and population experiments exhibit similar forms of R(x), significantly broader than that observed for individual phages. All curves are derived from the theoretical values in (A).
See also Figure S2.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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7. Figure 5
Hierarchical Decision Making Determines Cell Fate following Lambda Infection
(A) The traditional description of the postinfection decision consists of a single noisy decision at the whole-cell level. When m phages infect a cell of size l, the viral concentration (m/l) serves as an input parameter to the cell-fate decision (St-Pierre and Endy, 2008; Weitz et al., 2008). The outcome is lysis or lysogeny, with the lysogeny probability given by f(m/l). f(m/l) is very noisy (h ≈ 1; see Figure 4 above), and the noise is attributed to biochemical stochasticity (Arkin et al., 1998; Singh and Weinberger, 2009).
(B) Decision making at the subcellular level: according to the results presented in this work, cell fate is obtained through a two-step decision process. When m phages infect a cell of size l, the viral concentration (m/l) serves as an input parameter to the lysis/lysogeny choice by each individual phage. The lysogeny probability f1(m/l) exhibits a sharp threshold response to the viral concentration (h ≈ 2; see Figure 4 above), but is still noisy enough to allow lysis to be chosen. The choices of all infecting phages are then integrated through a logical “AND” gate, such that only if all phages choose lysogeny is that pathway pursued.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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8. Figure S1 Related to Figure 1
(A) Phage bands after ultracentrifugation through CsCl equilibrium gradients. Arrows point to the phage bands, both containing ∼1012 pfu phage particles. The gpD-mosaic phage (λLZ2, left) is slightly lighter than the wild-type phage (λIG2903, right), and has a greenish color. Both properties are consistent with the presence of the gpD-EYFP fusion proteins.
(B) Phage morphology examined using transmission electron microscopy. The gpD-mosaic phage (λLZ2, left) exhibited normal phage morphology, indistinguishable from the wild-type (λIG2903, right). (Magnification ∼100,000×, negative staining with Nano-W.)
(C) Bulk assay for lysogenization probability as a function of MOI. Δ: gpD-mosaic (λLZ2); ○: wild-type (λIG2903). Lines: theoretical prediction based on the observed single-cell lysogenization response f(m) combined with a Poisson collision statistics between individual bacteria and phages. The experimental data was shifted to accommodate for the imperfect adsorption and infection efficiencies. The gpD-mosaic phage exhibits the same MOI-response as wild-type.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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9. Figure S2 Related to Figure 4
Distribution of cell length. Normalized cell length is defined as cell length divided by the population median. The distribution can be fitted (red curve) to a log-normal distribution P(l) = exp(−(logl)2/2σl2)/lσl2π, where l is the normalized cell length and the fitting parameter σl is Error bars stand for standard error of the mean. Data are represented as mean ± SEM.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
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10. Figure S3 Related to the Experimental Procedures
(A) Relative MOI as a function of normalized cell length. Filled squares: experimental data. Line: linear fit. Error bar: standard error of the mean. Relative MOI is the number of phages adsorbed to the cell normalized by the mean MOI in the whole experiment. Normalized cell length is defined as cell length divided by the population median. The linear fit (red line) yields m = 0.95 l, where m and l are MOI and normalized cell length respectively. This linear relationship indicates that an increase in cell length yields an effective increase in infection cross-section.
(B) The effect of cell halted growth on lysogeny probability. Shown is the percentage of lysogenic cells as a function of MOI, in a bulk assay. Circles: experimental data. Line: theoretical prediction. With the incorporation of the cells with halted growth (Figure 2B), the resulting lysogenization probability shows a decrease when the MOI becomes large (MOI > 5). Data are represented as mean ± SEM.
Cell  , DOI: ( /j.cell )
Copyright © 2010 Elsevier Inc. Terms and Conditions