1. Observational Research
CHAPTERS 9 & 10
Observational Research
Lecture Outline
Quasi-Experimental Research
Correlational Research
Types of observational research
Sampling
Creating an effective survey

2. CHAPTER 9: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
TRUE EXPERIMENT
QUASI-EXPERIMENT
Has a manipulation
Uses random assignment
Can establish causation
Uses subject variable
Does not use random assignment otherwise
Does not establish causation
Examples:
Nonequivalent groups designs
P (subject variable) x E (manipulated variable) factorial designs

3. CHAPTER 9: QUASI-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
TRUE EXPERIMENT
QUASI-EXPERIMENT
I give a computer-based exam with an application students may choose to open if they want to see the countdown timer on their screen. OR
I teach two PSYC3450 lectures; my Monday lecture gets a countdown timer but my Wednesday lecture does not.
I want to know if presenting a countdown timer during an exam affects students’ performance.
I hold an exam in 2 separate rooms on the same day and at the same time. In one room, there is no countdown timer, in the other, there is. I randomly assign this class’ students to one of the two rooms.

4. CORRELATIONAL RESEARCH
Correlational research seeks to establish relationships between variables (not causation!)
Variables must be measured on a continuous scale (interval or ratio)
Involves no manipulation
Correlation coefficient is calculated (Pearson’s r)
r can be anywhere from -1 to 1
Magnitude of correlation corresponds to its strength
Sign corresponds to its direction (positive or negative)
Interpreting a correlation:
No causation!
The directionality problem
The third variable problem

5. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Describing behaviors in natural settings
Observer is unobtrusive, or
Habituation assumed
e.g., with animal observations (think: Jane Goodall)
Examples:
Snack selection at movie theaters
Gender differences in fighting behaviors at a bar
Helping behaviors in a preschool setting

6. NATURALISTIC OBSERVATION
Participant observation
Experimenter joins group being observed
e.g., Festinger’s study of a cult
Data recording problems
Ethical issues
Experimenters changing the group
e.g., Rosenhan, David (1973). On being sane in insane places. Science, 179 (4070), 250–258. 

7. PROBLEMS WITH OBSERVATIONAL RESEARCH
Challenges to observational methods 01 02
Research Example
Absence of control
But falsification of strong claims possible
Observer bias
Use of behavior checklists
Interobserver reliability
Participant reactivity
Use of unobtrusive measures helps
Ethics
Consent and privacy issues
Naturalistic observation in a science museum
Consent obtained (unusual in observational research)
Results  parents (Dads and Moms) explain science concepts more to their sons than to their daughters

8. SAMPLING Survey Research Samples vs. populations
Biased vs. representative samples
Self selection bias
Probability sampling vs. Non-probability sampling
Probability sampling (Random sampling)
Each member of population has equal chance of being selected as member of sample
Non-probability sampling has no such requirement

9. SAMPLING Survey Research Probability sampling Nonprobability sampling
Stratified sampling
Separate individuals according to some important variable (strata), then randomly sample some individuals from each stratum
Cluster sampling
Identify natural/convenient clusters
Randomly select a cluster of individuals all having some feature in common
Example: Wages in Brooklyn
Nonprobability sampling
Does NOT provide representative samples, but are easier to do
Convenience sampling
Select subjects who are available and convenient (e.g., Introductory Psychology “subject pool”)
Quota sampling
Snowball sampling
Ask subjects to get their acquaintances to participate
Often done with online surveys

10. CREATING AN EFFECTIVE SURVEY
Types of survey questions or statement
Open-ended vs. closed questions
Use of Likert scales
Avoid response bias
Be sure to give an appropriate # of units (5-7)
Reverse coding
Assessing memory and knowledge
Moderate use of “don’t know” alternative
Adding demographic information
Basic identifying data (e.g., age, income)
Place at end of survey
I am generally a happy person.
I am content with my life.
I try to look at the bright side.
Most often I feel miserable.

11. CREATING AN EFFECTIVE SURVEY
A key problem: survey wording
Avoid ambiguity (pilot study helps)
Don’t ask for two things in one question: Double-barreled questions
Please agree or disagree with the following statement: Cars should be faster and safer.
How satisfied are you with your pay and job conditions?
Should the government spend less money on the military and more on education?
Avoid biased and leading questions
College is a stressful place. How would you rate your level of stress?
Do you think it’s awful that Congress spends so much money on foreign affairs?

12. VARIETIES OF SURVEY METHODS
Interview
Plus  in-person, comprehensive, follow-ups possible
Minus  representative samples, cost, logistics, interviewer bias
Phone Survey
Plus  cost, efficiency
Minus  must be brief, response rate, sugging (selling under the guise of research)
Electronic Survey
Plus  cost, efficiency
Minus  sampling issues, ethics