1. Genetics and Prenatal Development2
Genetics and Prenatal Development

2. Genetic Basics Building Blocks of Life
Chromosomes
DNA
Genes
Genomes
There are about 23,000 different genes which would encompass the human Genome.
Highlight the definition of each term ‘

3. Genetic Basics Expression of Traits
Genotype-The totality of an individual’s genes
Phenotype-Actual Characteristics
This is what is seen or observed and can include a wide range of things
Website shows impact of environment on physical appearance on genetically identical twins

4. Website shows impact of environment on physical appearance on genetically identical twins
Studies of identical twins illustrate how different factors like smoking, sun exposure, depression and weight gain can influence aging. Age 52. The twin on the left smokes and has a history of more sun exposure, resulting in an older appearance than her twin of the same age. Photo: Dr. Bahman Guyuron

5. Genetic Basics Expression of Traits
Dominant Genes-Expressed characteristics
Recessive Genes-Not expressed, although it is a part of the genotype (genetic background)
Allele-Alternate form of a gene
Dominant-Recessive Inheritance
This can be used to explain curly and straight hair for SINGLE Dominant Genes

6. Table 2.1 Traits With Single-Gene Dominant–Recessive Inheritance
This can be used to explain curly and straight hair for SINGLE Dominant Genes
Table Traits With Single-Gene Dominant–Recessive Inheritance

7. Genetic Basics Expression of Traits
Incomplete Dominance
Phenotype influenced primarily but not exclusively by the dominant gene
Polygenic Inheritance
Interaction of multiple genes
Incomplete dominance can be seen with sickle cell anemia as an example. One gene could be recessive for disorder and the other gene is dominant which makes a person a carrier of sickle cell without having sickle cell. This makes the individual more resistant to malaria.

8. Genetic Basics The Sex Chromosomes
The 23rd chromosomes pair determine male or female
Males more vulnerable to X-linked recessive disorders

9. Genetic Basics Genes and Environment
Behavior Genetics
Estimating influence of genes and environment on development
Utilize twins to understand importance of genetics and tease out environment effects
Since identical twins share identical genes and fraternal twins only about 40-60% by comparing similarities and differences one can get an indication of the role of genes on certain traits. Studying adopted children can also be beneficial

10. Genetic Basics Genes and Environment
Heritability
An estimate of the extent to which genes are responsible for differences among persons within a specific population
Concordance Rates
Percentage that indicates degree of similarity in phenotype among pairs of family members
Heritability ranges form 0-1 and provides information about some degree of impact of genes and environment. Concordance rates can indicate some degree of genetic contribution of a condition.

11. The Human Experience Conception and Prenatal Development

12. Sperm and Egg Formation Cell Division
Define the major terms Gametes which are reproductive cells (sperm and ovum). Use slide and figure to visually demonstrate meiosis as a variation of mitosis. Mitosis is normal cell duplication and division with 46 chromosomes. Meiosis is duplication and division with 46 chromosomes but in the process a division occurs to allow only 23 chromosomes (ovum and sperm cells)

13. The Beginning of Life Conception
For conception to occur there must be a released ovum and a sperm.
Ovulation releases the ovum, and if sperm available, fertilization can occur.
There is only about a 24 hour window for fertilization to take place after ovum enters the fallopian tube. Sperm can last 2-5 days in a woman’s body to try to fertilize the ovum.
In some cases instead of one ova being released, two are released which, if fertilized, can lead to fraternal or dizygotic twins. (Mention ethnic variation here as well)

14. The Germinal Period First 2 Weeks of Life
During the travel from the fallopian tube to the uterus cell division is taking place
Blastocyst
Trophoblast
Embryonic disk
Describe cell division as well as the blastocyst, trophoblast and what makes up the embryonic disk. Highlight that the trophoblast will differentiate and develops the amnion. Other key structures to mention are placenta and the umbilical cord

15. The Embryonic Period Week 3-Week 8
Key Developments
Embryonic Layers
Ectoderm
Mesoderm
Endoderm
Highlight development of each part and what each will become according to the text.

16. The Embryonic Period Week 3-Week 8
Key organs and structures are forming including
Heartbeat
Eyes, nose and mouth
Bone development
Arm and leg buds
Digestive system
Identify specific week for each structure.

17. The Fetal Period Week 9-Birth
The longest period of prenatal development
Heartbeat can be heard
Movement can be felt
Responds to sounds
Main impediment to viability is lung development
Identify specific timeline development as important for the instructor and the class. Viability is important to mention. Interesting question to ask class is when fetus may feel pain. Or when they think there is brain activity

18. The Fetal Period Week 9-Birth
Identify specific timeline development as important for the instructor and the class. Viability is important to mention. Interesting question to ask class is when fetus may feel pain. Or when they think there is brain activity

19. Prenatal Care Traditional Cultures and Beliefs
Prenatal beliefs are impacted by generational wisdom of the time
These beliefs can include
Avoiding wine
Specific types of meat
Certain types of hot, cold food
Witches
Strong foods
A mix of practical and cultural ideas for prenatal care
Identify specific cultures for each belief system

20. Prenatal Care Science Driven Prenatal Care
Some current science-driven prenatal methods are derived from traditional cultures which includes massages
Current care can vary by ethnicity and SES
Developing world less likely to receive prenatal care
Current focus on diet, exercise, and teratogens

21. Map Ethnic Variations in Prenatal Care within the United States How does prenatal care differ for White women compared with other ethnic groups? What economic factors might account for these variations?

22. Prenatal Care Diet Two key vitamins are iodine and iron
Iodine deficiency tends to be a bigger issue in developing countries
Iron is necessary for a healthy pregnancy
It is important for women to drink fluids and expect increase in caloric intake of about calories

23. Prenatal Care Exercise
Continued physical activity is encouraged during pregnancy
Aerobic exercise encourages good cardiovascular health and positively benefits the fetus
A Non-aerobic exercise called Kegel exercises are also encouraged
Take moment to go more in depth of benefits of health for child and for mother. Also mention how too much could be detrimental

24. Prenatal Care Teratogens
Teratogens are environmental and bodily conditions that could be harmful
They can include tobacco, alcohol, prescription medications and other drugs
The physical environment could also be a teratogen due to malnutrition or exposure to hazardous chemicals

25. Safety sign. Source: http://www.compliancesigns.com

26. Pregnancy Problems

27. Chromosomal Disorders
Chromosomal disorders can occur because of an issue during meiosis
This may cause too many or too few chromosomes in the cells of the zygote
Two types of chromosomal disorders are:
Sex chromosome disorders
Disorder on the 21st chromosome (Down Syndrome)

28. Sex Chromosome Disorders
Sex chromosomal disorder can result from extra X, an extra Y, or only an X and no second chromosome
Common consequences of sex chromosome disorders include:
Cognitive Deficit
Abnormality in reproductive system at puberty

29. Down Syndrome Trisomy 21 Identifiable by physical characteristics
Cognitive Deficits
Speech problems
Mental retardation
Social development varies
Lower life expectancy
Mention specific physical and social development

30. Parental Age and Chromosomal Disorder
Chromosomal disorders tend to NOT be passed from parent to child
Relationship between maternal age and chromosomal disorders
There may be a relationship between a father’s age and chromosomal disorders but it isn’t as clear

31. Figure Chromosomal Disorders and Maternal Age Why does the risk rise so steeply after age 40? Source: Reproductive Medicine Associates of New Jersey, 2002

32. Teratogens
Major teratogens exist in both developed and developing countries
Malnutrition
Infectious Disease
Alcohol
Tobacco

33. Teratogens Timing of Teratogens
Teratogens can impact the developing fetus and embryo at any time
There does appear to be a critical period of prenatal development centered in the embryonic period
Mention more about critical timing of teratogens as well as time of exposure and how that can impact the development at different times

34. Teratogens Timing of Teratogens
Mention more about critical timing of teratogens as well as time of exposure and how that can impact the development at different times

35. Teratogens Malnutrition
Rural nature of half the world’s population impacts nutrition
Children’s health could vary based on country or area of conception
Common Teratogen worldwide is malnutrition
Mention effects of anencephaly and spina bifida and folic acid deficits in relation to China

36. Teratogens Malnutrition
Developed countries have food available but may have malnutrition
May be deficient in specific vitamins or improper diet may lead to obesity
Maternal obesity is linked to baby complications
Prenatal nutrition can also cause prenatal problems
Identify some specific baby complications or have class list some complications and problems from the reading and personal experience. Allows for class interaction

37. Teratogens Infectious Diseases
Rubella (German Measles)
Exposure during embryonic stage can lead to heart abnormalities and mental retardation
Exposure during the fetal stage can lead to hearing problems and low birth weight
Vaccination can help but Rubella remains widespread in less developed countries

38. Teratogens Infectious Diseases
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
Three strategies can help prevent transmission
Effective medicines
Cesarean sections for AIDS-infected moms
Infant formula in place of breast feeding
Good idea to have a discussion about which strategies could be employed in developing world that could be more effective. Possibly relate this to malnutrition as well especially regarding strategy number 3

39. Teratogens Drugs-Alcohol
Widespread damage in developed countries
Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorder
Increased effects as child develops

40. Teratogens Drugs-Tobacco
Maternal smoking increases risk of miscarriages, premature birth and low birth weight
Infant effects include difficulty breathing and impaired heart functioning

41. Teratogens Drugs-Tobacco
Childhood effects include poorer language skills, attention and memory problems and behavior problems
Second hand smoke by fathers is also detrimental

42. Teratogens Drugs
Malnutrition and diseases are common in developing countries
Alcohol and tobacco are common in developed countries
Prescription drugs can be damaging
Other teratogens include non-prescription drugs, severe stress, pollution and radiation

43. Prenatal Diagnosis Ultrasounds-Uses high frequency sound waves
Amniocentesis-Utilizes amniotic fluid
Chorionic Villus Sampling-Utilizes cells from forming umbilical cord
Be sure to identify why amniocentesis may be preferred over CVS and possible risks with each.

44. Infertility Causes For men three main causes For women many causes
Too few sperm
Quality of sperm
Low motility
For women many causes
One is ovulation

45. Figure Fertility and Maternal Age Why does fertility decline after the mid-twenties? Source: Reproductive Medicine Associates of New Jersey, 2002

46. Infertility Treatments
Historical treatments of infertility included:
Giving more attention to wife to achieve mutual orgasm
Surgery on a woman’s anatomy
Bloodletting
Current treatments are more advanced

47. Infertility Treatments
Many treatments utilize Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART)
Artificial Insemination
Injects sperm into woman’s uterus
Fertility Drugs
Mimic hormones involved in ovulation
In-vitro fertilization
Ova removed and fertilized outside the womb then placed into uterus
Specific information about multiples with Insemination and fertility drugs to match the photo

48. Utilize the map to discuss reasons for infertility in this portion of Central Africa. Also allows for discussion on if there could be such “regions” in other parts of the world. Also able to explore cultural variations in how infertility is viewed.
Map The “Infertility Belt” In certain countries in Central Africa, infertility rates are as high as 30%. The reasons for this are unclear although malnutrition and high rates of STIs are probable factors.