1. Presented at:
Canadian Counselling Association/
American Counselling Association
Annual Conference
April 1, 2006
Montreal, Quebec
Calgary Eating Disorder Education Network
January 10, 2006,
Calgary, Alberta
AN EXAMINATION OF THE CHANGING FEMALE IDEAL AS PORTRAYED IN MAGAZINES AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO ARTICLES ABOUT DIET, WEIGHT LOSS, AND COSMETIC SURGERY
Reana Saraceni, MC and Shelly Russell-Mayhew, PhD
Campus Alberta and the University of Calgary
Research suggests that the prevalence of ultra-thin female images portrayed in the media encourages female preoccupation with body dissatisfaction and weight loss. Two well cited studies (Garner, Garfinkel, Schwartz & Thompson, 1980; Wiseman, Gray, Mosimann, & Ahrens, 1992) conclude that mediated messages portray ideal female body images as unrealistically thin and that the number of diet and exercise articles in six popular magazines has progressively increased. The current study extends and enhances the previous research by analyzing body measurements, weights, and heights of Playboy Centerfolds across four decades from 1960 to Significant results show that bust and hip size have decreased relative to waist size, producing a more tubular body shape. Weights have not varied significantly whereas heights have increased an inch with each decade, producing a much thinner standard of female beauty. Using actuarial statistics, the total percent of Playboy Centerfolds meeting criteria for anorexia nervosa is 45.3%, and none of the models were either at, or above 100% of their expected weight. Analyzing Body Mass Index (BMI) of Playboy Centerfolds indicates there is less body weight variability in the 1990s than the 1960s, suggesting body weight standard has become more and more restrictive. Magazine articles devoted to diet, exercise, and cosmetic surgery were tabulated from 1989 to The number of cosmetic surgery articles substantially increased since 1989, while the number of diet for weight loss and exercise articles continues to decline.
Playboy Centerfolds
Body Measurements: bust size, hip size, waist size, height, weight and age were obtained for Playboy centerfolds from Jan 1960 to Dec1999.
Actuarial Body Size and Expected Weights: Percent of expected weights were obtained by dividing actual weights by average weights for each Playboy centerfold. Average weights were obtained using height and age data as determined by 1979 actuarial body size statistics.
Three grouping variables were created using expected weights
1) anorexic - weights equal to or less than 85% of expected weight;
2) underweight - weights between 86 and 99% of expected;
3) normal -weights equal to or greater than 100% of expected weight.
BMI and Expected Weight. BMIs for each Playboy centerfold were calculated by multiplying individual weights in pounds by 705 and dividing twice by their height in inches.
Three grouping variables were calculated using BMI.
1) Anorexic group - BMIs equal to or less than 17.5kg/m2
2) Underweight group - BMIs between 17.5 and 20kg/m2
3) normal group - BMIs between 20kg/m2. and 30kg/m2.
Magazine Selection
Diet for weight loss, exercise, diet/exercise and cosmetic surgery articles were tabulated between Jan1989 – Dec 2004 in Harpers Bazaar, Vogue, Ladies Home Journal, Good Housekeeping, Woman’s Day, McCalls, Glamour and Elle.
BMI and Expected Weight. The percent of Playboy centerfolds with BMIs below 17.5 in the 1960s was 2.6%, compared with 13.9% in the 1970s, 25.4% in the 1980s, and 19.3% in the 1990s.
Playboy centerfolds with BMIs between 17.5 and 20 was 68.1% in the 1960s, 77.40% in the 1970s, 72.9% in the 1980s, and 78.2% in the 1990s.
Playboy centerfolds with BMIs greater than 20 was 29.3% in the 1960s, 8.7% in the 1970s, 1.7% in the 1980s, and 2.5% in the 1990s.
Magazine Articles
The average number of diet articles was highest between 1995 and 1999 and steadily decreased between 2000 and 2004.
The average number of articles related to exercise was highest between 1989 and 1994 and continuously decreased with the least number of average articles being between 2000 and 2004.
The average number of cosmetic surgery articles was lowest between 1989 and 1994, and continuously increased over time as illustrated in the graphs.
Consciousness Raising
Consciousness raising involves challenging myths about thinness and dieting in our culture, and addressing the ways in which the promotion of unattainable body standards limit power for women.
Consciousness raising seeks to help women understand that the root of their negative body image lies within the social and political context, rather than the individual.
Media Education
Media literacy programs educate women to read mediated messages with a critical, smart, and informed attitude.
Media literacy interventions teach individuals to evaluate media critically, and to reduce the credibility and persuasive influence of mediated messages (Berel & Irving, 1998).
Media Activism
From the feminist perspective, prevention of negative body image consists of empowering women to become politically active and to derive self-worth from things other than external appearance related sources.
Media Activism is the effort to change messages that are portrayed by the media. The emphasis centers on the implications of media that effect women personally, and on the personal choices and political actions that can be taken to combat unrealistic mediated messages.
Abstract
Procedures
Implications for Counselling Women & Girls
The steady exposure of ultra-thin women portrayed in the media sets an unattainable standard for thinness that few women can meet. This ideal is so thin that there is very little room for variation as exemplified by current Playboy centerfolds who are ultra-thin in the waist and hip are, but extra large in the bust region.
This study suggests that exposure to mediated images of unrealistic female ideals places an overvaluation on perfection as the new standard for women, that can only be sought out by cosmetic surgery.
Eliminating body standards completely is unrealistic. However, through media literacy and awareness of the cultural context, women can be expected to enhance their relationships they have towards their bodies so that they can they may live more meaningful lives.
Playboy Centerfolds
Body Measurements: A multivariate one-way ANOVA was performed on body measurements by four decades and revealed a significant overall effect of decade (F (15,1220) = 27.19, p < .0004). The five bust, waist, hip, weight, and height univariate results were also statistically significant.
Although weights have remained relatively constant throughout the decades, heights have not. The average Playboy model weighed the same in the 1990s as she did in the 1960s, but is now an entire three inches taller.
Actuarial Body Size and Expected Weight: The percentage of Playboy centerfolds with weights less than 85% of expected weight in the 1960s was 12.1%, compared with 39.0% in the 1970s, 70.3% in the 1980s, and 59.2% in the 1990s. Weights between 85% and 99% of expected was 87.9% in the 1960s, 61.0% in the 1970s, 29.7% in the 1980s, and 40.8% in the 1990s.
No Playboy centerfolds had weights at or above 100% of expected.
Conclusions
Major Findings
Statistical Analysis Specific Research Questions
1. Multivariate one way ANOVA In what ways have the bust, waist, hip sizes as well as the weights and heights of Playboy centerfolds changed over the past four decades?
2. Contingency table analysis Using actuarial body size statistics from 1979, what % of Playboy centerfolds would meet criteria for anorexia nervosa as defined by the DSM-IV (American Psychological Association, 1994) in each of the decades?
3. Contingency table analysis Using BMI, what percentage of Playboy centerfolds would meet criteria for anorexia nervosa as defined by the DSM-IV (American Psychiatric Association, 1994) in each of the four decades?
4. Two-way repeated ANOVAs What has been the relationship, if any, between the magazine coverage of diet and exercise articles and articles dedicated to promoting cosmetic surgery.
Research Questions & Associated Statistical Analysis