1. Russian and East European Communism: Summing Up
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2. 2 PERSPECTIVES ON COMMUNISM
Communism as a global systemic phenomenon – a product of, and a challenge to,
global capitalism
Communism as a regional and civilizational phenomenon -
a phase in the historical development of some countries, starting with Russia
20th century communism was both
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3. Communism can be understood as:
--A body of thought – radical anticapitalist (since ancient times)
--A political ideology – organization of revolution to overthrow capitalism (since mid-19th century)
--A political movement – effecting an anticapitalist revolution and establishment of communist states (since the beginning of the 20th century)
--A type of political practice – behaviour of states ruled by communist parties
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4. The communist ideology emerged in Western Europe -
But it was Eastern Europe where communists first succeeded in overthrowing capitalism and establishing communist states
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10. Under state socialism, the power of command dwarfed all other methods
Basic methods of social control*
authority (the power of command)
exchange (the power of deal)
persuasion (the power of idea)
moral codes (the power of belief)
Each political-economic system relies on a specific combination of these methods
Under state socialism, the power of command dwarfed all other methods
The command economy and one-party rule reinforced each other
Extreme centralization of economic and political power
Fear of exchange – the specter of capitalist restoration
Inefficiency and social discontent
*See Charles Lindblom, Politics and Markets, Basic Books, 1976
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11. Stalinism was unviable
--Extreme degree of state control over society – hard to maintain, permanent emergency rule
--War was no longer on the horizon; capitalism was stabilizing: the challenges of peace and prosperity
--Communist elites needed more normal, stable regimes in which they would be secure from challenges both from above and from below
Changes were inevitable: they were in the interests both of the rulers and of the ruled
BUT: Stalinist features at the foundation of communist power
--Bureaucracy reigns as the New Class; no interest in sharing power
--One-party systems
--Control of information
--Mechanisms of repression (security services, the military)
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12. From the death of Stalin to the collapse of communism:
In each communist country: attempts to develop viable political-economic systems which would:
--secure the dominance of communist elites,
and
--make state socialism attractive – or at least acceptable - to the masses
Return to the past was impossible
Options for the future:
--National Stalinism (Albania, Romania, China)
--Reform socialism
--Liberal capitalism
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13. The Communist Party under state socialism
The system’s core
The principle of hierarchy (“democratic centralism”)
The Party leadership controls all mechanisms of the state, including economic management
Assuring the mass base through Party membership
Control of information (little or no media freedom, heavy use of propaganda, control of the cultural sphere)
The key role of security organs
Cannot be used against Party leadership
Use of force only under extreme circumstances
Manipulation of political processes
Surveillance, informer networks
Preventive measures against dissent
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14. The ruling class (NOMENKLATURA)
The Soviet society: new classes, new expectations, new relations and structures
The ruling class (NOMENKLATURA)
Ambivalent social status: the question of ownership
Does not need a dictator – WHY?
Increasingly confident of its power and right to rule
Big, diverse, interested in decentralization – WHY?
Reformers, Stalinists, pragmatic conservatives
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15. A new society Increasingly urbanized
Rapidly growing educational levels
Class struggle is declared over
Raised in the spirit of democratic expectations (even if within the limits of official ideology)
Demanding higher living standards
Women, youth, intellectuals: new social demands
Development of nationalist sentiments
Citizens losing fear of the state
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16. The essence of the reform process
States and societies created by the communists enter into a process of complex interactions:
--between the rulers and the ruled
--between different social groups
--between internal and external forces
Both conflicts and accomodation
Challenges to political leaders
Open-ended outcomes
Successes and failures
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17. The main components of the reform process – addressing the system’s flaws
DECENTRALIZATION
LIBERALIZATION
MARKETIZATION
DEMILITARIZATION
OPENING TO THE WORLD
The outcome depended on many factors – both internal and external
State socialism had to prove its viability under conditions of peace
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18. They needed to take big risks with democratization
Reform socialism required a strong commitment to democracy from the ruling elites.
They needed to take big risks with democratization
But the fear of losing power prevented them from taking such risks
Or, when some of them would venture risky democratic strategies, Soviet hardliners would intervene (Hungary, 1956, Moscow, 1964, Czechoslovakia, 1968, Poland, 1981, Moscow, 1991)
Ultimately (in ), the elites opted for capitalism
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19. THE SOVIET EMPIRE WAS DISSOLVED IN A SERIES OF POLITICAL DEALS,
INITIATED BY MOSCOW
ROUND ONE: Gorbachev negotiates with the West to end the Cold War ( )
ROUND TWO: Gorbachev encourages East European communists to act on their own; USSR loses control over Eastern Europe ( )
ROUND THREE: Yeltsin and leaders of the other 14 republics move to dissolve the USSR (1991)
ROUND FOUR: Yeltsin and leaders of Russia’s regions sign the Federal Treaty to establish the Russian Federation (1991)
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20. or of units of the Russian Federation
THE BIG DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE TWO FALLS OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE IN THE 20TH CENTURY:
The Romanov Empire collapsed as a result of a revolution, the elites were overthrown and replaced by new elites as a result of the civil war
The Communist elites moved to divide the empire to recast themselves as leaders of independent nation-states –
or of units of the Russian Federation
A key reason why the Soviet empire made a relatively quiet exit was because key Soviet elites saw a future for themselves after communism
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21. Some of them stick together (RF, CIS, GUUAM)
Having dissolved the empire, the new elites have been engaged in competition and cooperation between themselves to:
secure their control,
reform their political-economic systems,
find new places in the regional and global orders
THIS STRUGGLE OVER THE IMPERIAL SPOILS IS THE ESSENCE OF THE NEW INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS IN EURASIA
Some of them stick together (RF, CIS, GUUAM)
Others, go their own separate ways, look for new partnerships
Other states are exploring opportunities to expand their influence in Eurasia
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22. Explaining the Communist Experience: Four Paradigms
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23. BUREAUCRATIC STATE CAPITALISM TRANSITIONAL SOCIETY
TOTALITARIANISM
BUREAUCRATIC STATE CAPITALISM
TRANSITIONAL SOCIETY
CONVERGENCE AND INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY
Each explains certain aspects of the phenomenon
*See David Lane, The Rise and Fall of State Socialism
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24. 1. Totalitarianism
Focus on state-society relations: the “total” state, whether fascist or communist, seeks to control and dominate every aspect of individual’s life; society loses its autonomy from the state
Replacement of the market system with state ownership and central planning of economic activities; abolition of private property
The ruling party holds monopoly on power and forms the core of the state (the party-state)
Autocracy: extraordinary role of the top ruler (The Leader)
Enforcement of ideological orthodoxy, rejection of pluralism, strict control over information, curtailment of religious freedom
Massive apparatus of secret police as a key tool of state power; political repression as a standard practice
Militarism: the state exists primarily as a military machine; society is kept in a “mobilized” mode
Siege mentality and relative isolation from the outside world
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25. Focuses on the key flaw: extreme expansion of state power
WHY IT IS USEFUL
Focuses on the key flaw: extreme expansion of state power
Provides a frame of reference for understanding the logic of both communist reforms and post-communist transformations: correcting the imbalance by shrinking the state and expanding the scope of freedom.
Explains the attractiveness of liberalism as the polar opposite of totalitarianism
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26. PROBLEMS WITH THIS PARADIGM
Overlooks power dynamics (class relations, above all) within society which lead to the rise of total state power
A totalitarian setup can be attractive, and such a state can have a strong base in society
Totalitarianism can be an effective system – in extreme historic situations
Exaggerates the degree of state control (reality is different from impression); underestimates the potential for reform
Minimizes the differences between fascism and communism – they represented radically opposite social-political forces
Served as a propaganda tool in the Cold War
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27. 2. Bureaucratic State Capitalism
Communist regimes in Russia and East Europe were bureaucratic dictatorships
The party-state bureaucracy (the nomenklatura) was a new ruling class which enjoyed privileges and exploited the working classes
It was a form of capitalism where the bureaucracy was the collective capitalist, using the state as the tool of exploitation
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28. WHY IT IS USEFUL
Allows to understand power relations within the communist society – in particular, the issue of bureaucratic exploitation
Highlights the contradiction between the classic Marxist doctrine and the reality of communist states – that contradiction becomes a key source of dissent and reform within communist states
Helps understand the class logic of communist reform and post-communist transformation – the bureaucracy seeks to rationalize and strengthen its rule, while society seeks to bring it under control
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29. PROBLEMS WITH THIS PARADIGM
Can there be a capitalism without private ownership of the means of production and a market system?
The bureaucracy was not free to do whatever it wanted: its role in the system was management of the state which society expected to pursue egalitarian, socialist policies
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30. 3. Transitional Society
The communist system was a mix of capitalism and socialism, a product of transition from the former to the latter
The transitional character resulted from a premature overthrow of capitalism
The 2 sides were ultimately incompatible: their coexistence was temporary; the system had to evolve in one or another direction
Ultimately, the system’s capitalist elements overwhelmed the elements of socialism: transition to socialism gave way to transition to capitalism
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31. Highlights the complex, contradictory nature of the system
WHY IT IS USEFUL
Highlights the complex, contradictory nature of the system
Focuses on change, evolution of the communist system
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32. PROBLEMS WITH THIS PARADIGM
No system is without contradictions; what works is a viable mix; a mixed system saved capitalism; conflicts between capitalist and socialist elements did not have to be fatal for state socialism
State socialism can (at least theoretically) evolve into market socialism with a democratic political system
Why did it not happen in Russia and Eastern Europe?
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33. 4. Convergence and Industrial Society
Communism was not radically different from 20th – century capitalism – the two systems were two types of modern industrial society
Communism carried out the modernizing tasks in a number of societies which rejected the Western model of modernization
Communism and capitalism influenced each other
The key flaw of the system was fusion between the economy and the polity, which led to instability and stagnation
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34. Helps identify the place of communism in the wider historical process
WHY IT IS USEFUL
Helps identify the place of communism in the wider historical process
Helps transcend the “two-world” notions of the Cold War (there was always one world)
Downplays the importance of ideology – exaggerated during the Cold War
Offers a framework for comparing the systems in terms of their social effectiveness
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35. PROBLEMS WITH THIS PARADIGM
Exaggerates the similarities between welfare state capitalism and reform communism – the differences were fundamental
Downplays the real struggle for power between Western and communist elites
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36. SUMMING UP: TRYING TO EXPLAIN COMMUNISM An extreme form of statism
Emerged in Eastern Europe in a historical situation of extreme crisis (2 world wars, the Great Depression)
Claimed to offer an alternative to capitalism
Pursued rapid modernization “to catch up with the West”
Proved to be militarily stronger than fascism
Succeeded in the creation of modern industrial societies
The ruling class collectively exploited society, but did not have the freedom to become a bourgeoisie
Had to rely on elements of capitalism, which ultimately gained an upper hand
Proved to be unviable due to excessive bureaucratic rigidity
Reform of the system led to its integration into global capitalism
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