1. Revolutions of Industrialization
Chapter 17, 1750 – 1900

2. Explaining the Industrial Revolution
“[g]lobal energy demands began to push against the existing local and regional ecological limits.”
Use of new energy sources: - steam and fossil fuels: coal, oil, and natural gas.
In Britain, the Industrial Revolution’s birthplace, industrial output increased some fifty-fold between 1750 and 1900.
The greatest innovative breakthrough was the coal-fired steam engine.
Agriculture and many industries were transformed.

3. The Steam Engine

4. Why Europe?
When looking at the pre-industrial world, many would not see an inherent advantage for Europe. China arguably had the world’s most impressive technology, and India and the Islamic world had many noteworthy accomplishments. These societies were also enjoying strong commercial activity and long-distance trade networks that were noteworthy for both their volume and age.
Small, highly competitive states.
European rulers allied with merchants to gain revenue:   - as opposed to China.

5. Why Europe? (Cont’d)
It was in the government’s interest to encourage commerce and innovation.
In Venice and Holland, merchants controlled the state:
- Quest for the products and ideas of Asia.
- Competition with Indian cotton cloth manufacture.
- Popularity of other Asian goods prompted imitation.
Europeans were fortunate to be close to the newly discovered Americas, gaining access to silver and a variety of food supplies and timber, as well as new land to develop slave-run sugar plantations. This windfall of bullion, calories, and profits provided Europe with an essential economic boost to compete with the Asian economies.

6. Map of the Industrial Revolution

7. Why Britain?
Britain was the most commercialized of Europe’s larger countries: - landlords had pushed out small farmers for market production (enclosure movement). - market production fueled by a number of agricultural innovations (crop rotation, seeds; etc.). - guilds had largely disappeared.
Supply of industrial workers with few options.
British aristocrats were long interested in commerce.
British commerce was worldwide: - the Royal Navy protected its large merchant fleet.

8. Why Britain? (Cont’d)
British political life encouraged commercialization and economic innovation: - policy of religious toleration (established 1688). - British government imposed tariffs to protect its businessmen. - it was easy to form companies and workers’ unions were forbidden. - unified internal market, thanks to road and canal system. - patent laws protected inventors’ interests. - checks on royal authority gave more room for private enterprise than elsewhere in Europe.

9. Why Britain? (Cont’d)
Emphasis of the Scientific Revolution was different in Great Britain: - on the continent, it centered on logic, deduction, and mathematical reasoning. - in Britain, it was based on observation and experiment, measurement, mechanical devices, and practical applications. - also in Britain, artisan/craftsman inventors were in close contact with scientists and entrepreneurs.

10. Why Britain? (Cont’d)
The British Royal Society (founded 1660) took the role of promoting “useful knowledge:” - publicized information on recent scientific advances.
Britain had plenty of coal and iron ore deposits.
Britain was geographically lucky, and not devastated by the Napoleonic wars.
Social change was possible without revolution since British society was fluid.

11. The First Industrial Society
There was a massive increase in output in Britain: - rapid development of railroad systems. - an increase in mining, manufacturing, and services. - agriculture became less important by comparison.
Vast transformation of daily life: - it was a traumatic process for many. - different people were affected in different ways.
The aristocracy declined: - urban wealth became more important.
Businessmen and bankers became the elites.

12. Measuring the Industrial Revolution

13. The British Aristocracy
Since only a few thousand families owned half the cultivated land in Britain, this class remained wealthy and exerted power in Parliament. With rapid urbanization, the demand for food remained strong.
The British aristocracy declined as a powerful class, however, when new sources of urban wealth from entrepreneurs, industrialists, and bankers began to challenge the old wealth of land. By the end of the 19th century, landowners were no longer the main base of power in the country.
Faced with declining prospects at home, many aristocrats turned to the empire as a career path.

14. The Middle Classes
Upper middle class (factory and mine owners, bankers, and merchants): some became extremely wealthy, bought into aristocratic life.
Middle class consisted of large numbers of smaller businessmen and professionals: - politically liberal (favored private property, free trade, and limited social reform). - stood for thrift, hard work, rigid morals, and cleanliness.

15. The Middle Classes (Cont’d)
Samuel Smiles, Self-Help (1859): individuals are responsible for their own destiny.
Middle-class women (homemakers, wives; mothers): - moral centers of society from cut-throat capitalism. - managers of consumption (rise of “shopping”). - rising “ideology of domesticity.”
The end of the 19th century also saw a rise in the lower end middle class as the number of clerks, salespeople, and teachers grew. These clerical professions did not pay well, but they were desk jobs and thus distinguished the workers from the laboring classes.

16. Samuel Smiles – Self Help

17. The Laboring Classes Some 70% of the 19th century British population.
Suffered the most and benefited the least.
By 1900, London was most populous city in the world: - vast overcrowding (Liverpool’s population went from 77,000 to 400,000). - inadequate sanitation and water supplies. - periodic epidemics. - few public services or open spaces. - little contact between the rich and the poor and thus ignorant of the others’ thoughts and feelings.

18. The Laboring Classes (Cont’d)
Work Conditions: - long hours, low wages, and child labor were typical for the poor. - monotony of work, direct supervision, and discipline. - industrial work was insecure. - many girls and young women worked.
Women usually left outside paid employment when they married, but often continued to earn money in cottage industries.

19. Factory Life

20. Social Protest
“Friendly Societies” of artisans, for self-help, were common in the early 19th century.
Other skilled artisans sometimes wrecked machinery and burned mills.
Some joined political movements, aimed to enfranchise working-class men.
Trade unions were legalized in 1824: - growing numbers of factory workers joined them. - fought for better wages and working conditions. - at first, upper classes feared them.

21. Social Protest (Cont’d)
Karl Marx (1818–1883) laid-out a full ideology of socialism: - human history is a history of class struggle. - a growing hostility between the bourgeoisie (upper class) and the proletariat (lower class). - argued that capitalism can never end poverty.
Foretold a future (communist) golden age when industrial technology would serve the whole community: - socialist ideas were attractive among radicals. - even more attractive in Germany. - but the British working class was not overtly revolutionary in the late-19th century.

22. Karl Marx

23. Social Protest (Cont’d)
Conditions improved for workers in the second half of the 19th century: - wages improved. - cheap imported food improved diets. - infant mortality rates fell. - male workers gradually obtained the vote. - sanitary reform cleaned-up cities. - even some urban parks were established.
However, vast inequalities still remained by 1914.

24. Europeans in Motion
Industrialization induced several massive waves of migration. Just over half of the European population migrated to cities in the nineteenth century. Some 20 percent of the population, 50 to 55 million people, for overseas destinations between 1815 and 1939.
Europeans settled in Australia and New Zealand, overwhelming the local population and creating distant versions of Britain. In Algeria, South Africa, Rhodesia, Kenya, and elsewhere, smaller populations set up settler colonies and instituted sharp racial divisions (later apartheid).

25. Europeans in Motion (Cont’d)
In Latin America, immigrants from Spain, Portugal, and Italy benefited from being “white” and achieved superior social status to the Indian, mixed, and African populations.
The U.S. offered a unique draw to European immigrants as there plenty of both land and industrial jobs. Thirty million Europeans arrived between 1820 and Protestants from Britain and Germany looked down upon later arriving Catholics and Jews from southern and eastern Europe.

26. Europeans in Motion (Cont’d)
After the emancipation of the serfs in 1861, some 10 million Russians and Ukrainians migrated to Siberia in search of land, freedom, and other opportunities. The tsarist state promoted them as a barricade against the Chinese Empire.

27. European Migration in the Industrial Age

28. Industrialization in the United States and Russia
By 1900, industrialization spread to the United States, Russia and Japan.
Women received lower wages than men: - accused of taking jobs from men.
Establishment of trade unions and socialist movements.
French industrialization was much slower.
Germany focused on heavy industry and huge companies (cartels).

29. The United States: Industrialization without Socialism
Began small with factories in New England: - Lowell mills.
After the Civil War, industrialization grew: - by 1914, became the world’s leading industrial power.
Government support was key to this spectacular growth. Land grants, low taxes, and a tolerance of monopolies allowed massive industrial concerns to generate profits and products.
Mass Production, Assembly Line; Interchangeable Parts: - Ford, Carnegie, and Rockefeller (self-made wealth).
Culture of consumption – Sears Catalogs.

30. The United States: Industrialization without Socialism (Cont’d)
Growing gap between rich and poor, slums emerged.
Growing protest from the lower class: - erupted in violence (1877 railroad strike).
Socialism did not become popular in America: - unions (AFL) were conservative. - better quality of life than in Europe. - the middle class aspired for white collar jobs.
“Populists” (1890s) denounced corporate interests.
“Progressives” pushed to “fix” the social problems in the 20th century.

31. American Industrialization in 1900

32. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution
Russia had an absolute monarchy.
The tsar had more control of the state than any other ruler in the western world.
1900 Russia: no political parties, no elections, and no Parliament.
It was the state, and not society, which initiated change.
Tsar Peter the Great ( ) – “transformation from above.”
The state freed the serfs in 1861, following defeat in the Crimean War ( ).

33. Tsar Peter the Great

34. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution (Cont’d)
Russian industrialization launched in 1890s: - focused on railroads and heavy industry.
Industries were concentrated in a few major cities (St. Petersburg, Moscow; Kiev) with huge companies.
This generated a Marxist militant labor movement.
A growing middle class grew a hatred of Russia’s deep conservatism.
Russian working class radicalized quickly: - harsh working and living conditions. - no legal outlet for grievances. - large scale strikes and sabotage.

35. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution (Cont’d)
Marxist Socialism appealed to educated Russians and gave them hope for the future through a workers’ revolution.
Russian Social-Democratic Labor Party formed 1898: - educated workers, organized unions, and later revolutionary action.
In 1905, following defeat in the Russo-Japanese War, a major insurrection occurred as workers went on strike: - formed soviets or representative councils. - mutiny in the military.
Brutally suppressed, but the tsar was forced to make reforms: - a constitution, legalized unions and political parties, and created the Duma.

36. Map of Peasant Unrest in Tsarist Russia

37. Russia: Industrialization and Revolution (Cont’d)
The tsar’s measures were only half-hearted and limited. In 1914, 1.25 million workers went on strike.
The various revolutionary movements grew rapidly between 1905 and 1917, as dissatisfaction with the Russian state spread throughout society.
During WWI, which was disastrous for Russia, Russia once again plunged into revolution. By the end of 1917, Vladimir Lenin, leader of the racial Marxist Bolshevik Party, was in power and embarked on a grand revolutionary experiment.

38. Vladimir Lenin

39. The Bolshevik Revolution

40. The Industrial Revolution and Latin America
Only modest experiments in industry.
It did not transform societies.
Non-industrialized societies still felt the impact of Europe and North America after independence.

41. After Independence in Latin America
Took a long time, was very destructive.
18 separate countries formed from the 4 vice-royalties.
International Wars hindered development: - Mexico lost vast territories to the United States (1846–1848). - Peru and Bolivian bitter conflict (1836–1839) Paraguay was devastated by war (1864–1870).
Political life was turbulent and highly unstable.
Caudillos – military strongmen, who often gained power and ruled authoritatively.

42. After Independence in Latin America (Cont’d)
Independence brought little change to social life: - slavery was abolished (though not until the late-1880s in Brazil and Cuba). - most legal distinctions between racial categories were abolished. - creole whites remained overwhelmingly in control of productive economic resources. - small middle class allowed social mobility for a few. - the vast majority were impoverished.
Caste War of Yucatán (1847–1901): One of the few revolts of the oppressed indigenous people, an effort by the Mayan people to get rid of the European and mixed-race settlers.

43. Facing the World Economy
Greater stability, integration into global economy, for Mexico, Peru, and Argentina in the later-19th century.
Rapid growth of exports to industrialized countries: - exported food products and raw materials. - imported textiles, machinery, tools, and weapons.
Capital investments from Europe and the U.S. stimulated growth in railways and mines but also led to foreign control of key sectors of the economy, thus reducing regional sovereignty.

44. Becoming like Europe?
Trying to become like Europe: - rapid population increase due to improved public health measures. - rapid urbanization, creating modern cities. - actively sought European immigrants.
Few people benefited from the export boom: - upper-class landowners did very well. - the middle class professionals also benefited. - over 90% of the population, however, was still lower-class and most were impoverished.
As unions grew and engaged in strikes, they were met with brutal repression.

45. Becoming like Europe? (Cont’d)
Only in Mexico did conditions provoke a nationwide revolution: - overthrow of the dictator Porfirio Díaz (1876–1911). - major, bloody conflict (1910–1920). - huge peasant armies. - transformed Mexico.
New Constitution (1917): - universal male suffrage. - land re-distributed. - disestablishment of the Catholic Church. - minimum wage and eight-hour workday.

46. Becoming like Europe? (Cont’d)
Export boom did not cause successful industrialization: - little internal market for manufactured goods. - the rich had little incentive to invest in manufacturing. - governments supported free trade, so cheaper and higher-quality foreign goods were more available than those produced domestically. - economic growth was dependent on Europe and the United States. - some have regarded it as a new form of colonialism. - the case of the “banana republics” under pressure from the United States and its businesses. - repeated American military intervention (Cuba, Haiti).

47. Latin America and the World, 1825 – 1935