1. Motivation in Organizations
Chapter 12
Motivation in Organizations
Copyright © 2006 by South-Western, a division of Thomson Learning. All rights reserved.

2. Leading Function What does it involve?

3. Performance Determinants
Performance = Σ ((Mot. Force) x (Ability) x (Situational Constraints))

4. Motivation
Refers to the forces either internal or external to a person that arouse enthusiasm and persistence to pursue a certain course of action. p. 444

5. A Simple Model of Motivation Ex. 12.1
A Simple Model of Motivation Ex. 12.1
NEED-Creates desire to fulfill needs (food, friendship, recognition, achievement).
BEHAVIOR-Results in actions to fulfill needs.
REWARDS-Satisfy needs; intrinsic or extrinsic rewards.
FEEDBACK-Reward informs person whether behavior was appropriate and should be used again.

6. Types of Rewards
Intrinsic rewards--satisfactions a person receives in the process of performing a particular action. (self-administered)
Extrinsic rewards--given by another person. (dependent on another to recognize and administer)

7. Content Theories Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
Content Theories
A group of theories that emphasize the needs that motivate people.
Hierarchy of Needs Theory (Maslow)
ERG Theory (Alderfer)
Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)
Acquired Needs Theory (McClelland)

8. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Ex. 12.2
Fulfillment off the Job
Need Hierarchy
Fulfillment on the Job
Education, religion,hobbies
personal growth
Self-Actualization
Needs
Opportunities for training,
advancement, growth, and creativity
Approval of family, friends,
community
Esteem Needs
Recognition, high status,
increased responsibilities
Family, friends, community
groups
Belongingness Needs
Work groups, clients,coworkers,
supervisors
Freedom from war, pollution,
violence
Safety Needs
Safe work,fringe benefits, job security
Food, water, shelter
Physiological Needs
Heat, air, base salary

9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
Self-Actualization
Needs
represent the need for
self-fulfillment
Esteem Needs
desire for a positive self-image
and to receive attention
Belongingness Needs
desire to be accepted by one’s peers
Safety Needs
safe and secure physical and emotional environment
Physiological Needs
most basic human physical needs

10. How does Maslow’s Hierarchy work?
Unsatisfied needs are motivating
Satisfaction progression
Identify level of greatest unmet need and move up the hierarchy

11. ERG Theory Frustration-regression Satisfaction-progression
Growth Needs
human potential,
personal growth, and increased competence
Frustration-regression
Satisfaction-progression
Relatedness Needs
the need for satisfactory relationships
with others
Existence Needs
the needs for physical well-being

12. How does ERG work? Satisfaction progression Frustration regression
Simpler categories work better

13. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory Ex. 12.4
Area of Satisfaction
Area of Satisfaction
Highly Satisfied
Motivators
Achievement
Recognition
Responsibility
Work
Personal growth
Motivators influence level of satisfaction.
Neither Satisfied nor Dissatisfied
Area of Dissatisfaction
Hygiene factors influence level
of dissatisfaction.
Working conditions
Pay and security
Company policies
Supervisors
Interpersonal
relationships
Note: there is no continuity between categories. Hygienes and Motivators are separate and distinct. There is no progression from one to another.
Hygiene
Factors
Highly Dissatisfied

14. How does Herzberg’s Theory Work?
Two categories that are discontinuous (not a natural progression from one to another)
Hygienes are in the context of work
Motivators are in the content of work
Laid the foundation for job enrichment

15. McClelland’s Acquired Need – how does it work?
Needs are learned, not inherent
Each is separate, no hierarchy or progression
Can be taught to seek achievement (becomes intrinsic)

16. Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland
Acquired Needs Theory of David McClelland
Need for
Power
desire to influence
or control others
Need for Affiliation
desire to form close personal
relationships, avoid conflict, and
establish warm friendships
Need for Achievement
desire to accomplish something difficult, master
complex tasks, and surpass others

17. Process Theories Expectancy Theory Equity Theory Reinforcement Theory
Process Theories
A group of theories that explain how employees select behaviors with which to meet their needs and determine whether their choices were successful.
Expectancy Theory
Equity Theory
Reinforcement Theory

18. Process Theory 1 Expectancy Theory
Process Theory 1
Expectancy Theory
Motivation depends on individuals’ expectations about their ability to perform tasks and receive desired rewards. E P
Concerned not with identifying types of needs but with the thinking process that individuals use to achieve rewards. P O
Based on the effort, performance, and desirability of outcomes. O

19. Major Elements of Expectancy Theory Ex. 12.5
Major Elements of Expectancy Theory Ex. 12.5

20. Applications of Expectancy Theory
Figure out what employees value (O)
Determine behavior you desire and clearly communicate to ee.
Make levels of performance attainable (E P)
Link outcomes to desired performance (P O)
Analyze situation for competing expectancies.
Check the overall system for equity.

21. Process Theory 2 Equity Theory
Equity Theory
Focuses on individuals’ perceptions of how fairly they are treated compared with others.
Motivated to seek social equity in the rewards they expect for performance.
Self
Other
Inputs = ?
Outputs = ?
OutputsS OutputsO
<
Inputs S InputsO

22. Equity Theory of Motivation
Inputs
Education
Experience
Effort
Outputs
Recognition
Pay
Benefits
Promotion
Training and growth opportunities

23. Reducing Perceived Inequities
Change inputs.
Change outcomes.
Distort perceptions.
Leave the job.

24. Explain the cartoon
She was punished for good behavior

25. Process Theory 3 Reinforcement Theory
The consequences following behavior are important.
Some consequences increase the likelihood of future behavior.
Some consequences decrease the likelihood of future behavior.

26. What types of consequences?
Positive $
Praise
Attention
Satisfaction
Promotion

27. Negative Consequences
Discipline (often progressive)
letter,
loss of wages,
termination
Disapproving look
“Chewing out”
Guilt (indirect communication)

28. Reinforcement Category?
What is this?
Reinforcement Category?
Behavior
Consequences
Positive
Reinforcement
Desired Consequence?
Continued effort

29. Reinforcement Category?
What is this?
Reinforcement Category?
Behavior
Consequences
reprimand
punishment
Desired Consequence?
Not fight again

30. What is Extinction? Subsequent behavior? Behavior Consequences
undesirable
none
Reinforcement withdrawn, behavior decreases

31. What is Avoidance Learning?
Subsequent behavior
Behavior
Consequences
Screaming boss
Employee looks contrite or cries; boss stops screaming (negative condition ends)
Employee behavior is reinforced & occurs more quickly when boss screams in future

32. Figure 12.6 Changing Behavior With Reinforcement

33. Ex. 12.7 Schedules of Reinforcement

34. Rewarding Ideas for Motivating
Pay for Performance
Gain Sharing
Employee stock Ownership
Lump-sum Bonuses
Flexible Work Schedule
Telecommuting
Team-based Compensation
Lifestyle Awards

35. Job Design for Motivation
Job design - application of motivational theories to the structure of work
Job simplification - job design whose purpose is to improve task efficiency
Job Rotation - rotate employees to provide stimulation
Job Enlargement - combination of tasks into broader job to increase challenge
Job Enrichment - incorporating achievement and recognition into jobs

36. Job Characteristics Model
Exhibit 12.9

37. Learning Objectives
Define motivation and explain the difference between current approaches and traditional approaches to motivation.
Identify and describe content theories of motivation based on employee needs.
Identify and explain process theories of motivation.
Describe reinforcement theory and how it can be used to motivate employees.
Discuss major approaches to job design and how job design influences motivation.
Explain how empowerment heightens employee motivation.
Describe ways that managers can create a sense of meaning and importance for employees at work.

38. Ex. 12.9 The Job Characteristics Model
Ex The Job Characteristics Model
SOURCE: Adapted from J.Richard Hackman and G.R. Oldham, “Motivation through the Design of Work: Test of a Theory,” Organizational Behavior and Human Performance 16 (1976), 256.

39. Figure 12.11 A Continuum of Empowerment