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9 Articulations
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An Introduction to Articulations
Body movement occurs at joints (articulations) where two bones connect Joint Structure Determines direction and distance of movement (range of motion or ROM) Joint strength decreases as mobility increases
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Two Methods of Classification Functional classification is based on range of motion of the joint Structural classification relies on the anatomical organization of the joint
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Functional Classifications Synarthrosis (immovable joint) Amphiarthrosis (slightly movable joint) Diarthrosis (freely movable joint)
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Structural Classifications Bony Fibrous Cartilaginous Synovial
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synarthroses (Immovable Joints) Are very strong Edges of bones may touch or interlock Four types of synarthrotic joints Suture Gomphosis Synchondrosis Synostosis
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Suture Bones interlocked Are bound by dense fibrous connective tissue Are found only in skull Gomphosis Fibrous connection (periodontal ligament) Binds teeth to sockets
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synchondrosis Is a rigid cartilaginous bridge between two bones Epiphyseal cartilage of long bones Between vertebrosternal ribs and sternum Synostosis Fused bones, immovable Metopic suture of skull Epiphyseal lines of long bones
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Amphiarthroses More movable than synarthrosis Stronger than freely movable joint Two types of amphiarthroses Syndesmosis Bones connected by ligaments Symphysis Bones separated by fibrocartilage
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9-1 Classification of Joints
Synovial Joints (Diarthroses) Also called movable joints At ends of long bones Within articular capsules Lined with synovial membrane
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9-2 Synovial Joints Articular Cartilages
Pad articulating surfaces within articular capsules Prevent bones from touching Smooth surfaces lubricated by synovial fluid Reduce friction
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9-2 Synovial Joints Synovial Fluid
Contains slippery proteoglycans secreted by fibroblasts Functions of synovial fluid Lubrication Nutrient distribution Shock absorption
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9-2 Synovial Joints Accessory Structures Cartilages Fat pads Ligaments
Tendons Bursae
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9-2 Synovial Joints Cartilages Fat Pads Ligaments Cushion the joint
Fibrocartilage pad called a meniscus (or articular disc; plural, menisci) Fat Pads Superficial to the joint capsule Protect articular cartilages Ligaments Support, strengthen joints Sprain – ligaments with torn collagen fibers
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9-2 Synovial Joints Tendons Bursae Attach to muscles around joint
Help support joint Bursae Singular, bursa, a pouch Pockets of synovial fluid Cushion areas where tendons or ligaments rub
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9-2 Synovial Joints Factors That Stabilize Synovial Joints
Prevent injury by limiting range of motion Collagen fibers (joint capsule, ligaments) Articulating surfaces and menisci Other bones, muscles, or fat pads Tendons of articulating bones
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Figure 9-1a The Structure of a Synovial Joint
Medullary cavity Spongy bone Periosteum Fibrous joint capsule Synovial membrane Articular cartilages Joint cavity (containing synovial fluid) Compact bone Synovial joint, sagittal section 17
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Figure 9-1b The Structure of a Synovial Joint
Quadriceps tendon Bursa Joint capsule Femur Patella Synovial membrane Articular cartilage Meniscus Fat pad Patellar ligament Intracapsular ligament Joint cavity Tibia Meniscus Knee joint, sagittal section 18
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9-2 Synovial Joints Injuries Dislocation (luxation) Subluxation
Articulating surfaces forced out of position Damages articular cartilage, ligaments, joint capsule Subluxation A partial dislocation
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9-3 Movements Three Types of Dynamic Motion
Linear movement (gliding) Angular movement Rotation Planes (Axes) of Dynamic Motion Monaxial (1 axis) Biaxial (2 axes) Triaxial (3 axes)
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Figure 9-2 A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Initial position Gliding movement Angular movement Circumduction Rotation 21
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Figure 9-2a A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Initial position Initial position of the model. The pencil is at right angles to surface. 22
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Figure 9-2b A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Gliding movement Possible movement 1, showing gliding, an example of linear movement. The pencil remains vertical, but tip moves away from point of origin. 23
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Figure 9-2c A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Angular movement Possible movement 2, showing angular movement. The pencil tip remains stationary, but shaft changes angle relative to the surface. 24
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Figure 9-2d A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Circumduction Possible movement 2, showing a special type of angular movement called circumduction. Pencil tip remains stationary while the shaft, held at an angle less than 90º, moves in a conical pattern to complete a circle. 25
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Figure 9-2e A Simple Model of Articular Movement
Rotation Possible movement 3, showing rotation. With tip at same point, the angle of the shaft remains unchanged as the shaft spins around its longitudinal axis. 26
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Terms describe:
Plane or direction of motion Relationship between structures
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Gliding Movement
Two surfaces slide past each other Between carpal or tarsal bones
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Flexion Extension Angular motion
Anterior–posterior plane Reduces angle between elements Extension Increases angle between elements
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Hyperextension Angular motion
Extension past anatomical position
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Figure 9-3a Angular Movements
Extension Flexion Hyperextension Flexion Flexion Hyper- extension Extension Extension Flexion Hyperextension Extension Flexion/extension 31
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Abduction Adduction Angular motion
Frontal plane Moves away from longitudinal axis Adduction Moves toward longitudinal axis
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Figure 9-3b Angular Movements
Abduction Abduction Adduction Adduction Abduction Adduction Abduction Adduction Abduction/adduction 33
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Figure 9-3c Angular Movements
Adduction Abduction Adduction/abduction 34
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9-3 Movements Angular Movement Circumduction
Circular motion without rotation Angular motion
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Figure 9-3d Angular Movements
Circumduction 36
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9-3 Movements Types of Movement at Synovial Joints Rotation
Direction of rotation from anatomical position Relative to longitudinal axis of body Left or right rotation Medial rotation (inward rotation) Rotates toward axis Lateral rotation (outward rotation) Rotates away from axis
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Figure 9-4a Rotational Movements
Head rotation Right rotation Left rotation Lateral (external) rotation Medial (internal) rotation 38
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9-3 Movements Types of Movements at Synovial Joints Rotation Pronation
Rotates forearm, radius over ulna Supination Forearm in anatomical position
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Figure 9-4b Rotational Movements
Supination Pronation Supination Pronation 40
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Inversion Eversion Dorsiflexion
Twists sole of foot medially Eversion Twists sole of foot laterally Dorsiflexion Flexion at ankle (lifting toes) Plantar flexion Extension at ankle (pointing toes)
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Eversion Inversion 42
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Dorsiflexion (ankle flexion) Plantar flexion (ankle extension) 43
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Opposition
Thumb movement toward fingers or palm (grasping) Reposition Opposite of opposition Protraction Moves anteriorly In the horizontal plane (pushing forward) Retraction Opposite of protraction Moving anteriorly (pulling back)
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Opposition 45
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Retraction Protraction 46
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9-3 Movements Special Movements Elevation Depression Lateral flexion
Moves in superior direction (up) Depression Moves in inferior direction (down) Lateral flexion Bends vertebral column from side to side
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Depression Elevation 48
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Figure 9-5 Synovial Joints
Lateral flexion 49
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9-3 Movements Classification of Synovial Joints by Shape Gliding Hinge
Pivot Condylar Saddle Ball-and-socket
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9-3 Movements Gliding Joints Hinge Joints Pivot Joints
Flattened or slightly curved faces Limited motion (nonaxial) Hinge Joints Angular motion in a single plane (monaxial) Pivot Joints Rotation only (monaxial)
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9-3 Movements Condylar Joints Saddle Joints Ball-and-socket Joints
Oval articular face within a depression Motion in two planes (biaxial) Saddle Joints Two concave, straddled (biaxial) Ball-and-socket Joints Round articular face in a depression (triaxial)
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9-3 Movements Joints A joint cannot be both mobile and strong
The greater the mobility, the weaker the joint Mobile joints are supported by muscles and ligaments, not bone-to-bone connections ANIMATION Representative Articulations: A Functional Classification of Synovial Joints
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
C2 to L5 spinal vertebrae articulate: At inferior and superior articular processes (gliding joints) Between adjacent vertebral bodies (symphyseal joints)
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Intervertebral Discs Pads of fibrocartilage Separate vertebral bodies Anulus fibrosus Tough outer layer Attaches disc to vertebrae Nucleus pulposus Elastic, gelatinous core Absorbs shocks
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Figure 9-7 Intervertebral Articulations
Superior articular facet Intervertebral Disc Vertebral end plate Intervertebral foramen Anulus fibrosus Ligamentum flavum Nucleus pulposus Spinal cord Posterior longitudinal ligament Spinal nerve Interspinous ligament Supraspinous ligament Anterior longitudinal ligament 56
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Vertebral Joints Also called symphyseal joints As vertebral column moves: Nucleus pulposus shifts Disc shape conforms to motion Intervertebral Ligaments Bind vertebrae together Stabilize the vertebral column
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Six Intervertebral Ligaments Anterior longitudinal ligament Connects anterior bodies Posterior longitudinal ligament Connects posterior bodies Ligamentum flavum Connects laminae
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Six Intervertebral Ligaments Interspinous ligament Connects spinous processes Supraspinous ligament Connects tips of spinous processes (C7 to sacrum) Ligamentum nuchae Continues supraspinous ligament (C7 to skull)
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Damage to Intervertebral Discs Slipped disc Bulge in anulus fibrosus Invades vertebral canal Herniated disc Nucleus pulposus breaks through anulus fibrosus Presses on spinal cord or nerves
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Figure 9-8a Damage to the Intervertebral Discs
Normal intervertebral disc L1 Slipped disc L2 A lateral view of the lumbar region of the spinal column, showing a distorted intervertebral disc (a “slipped” disc) 61
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Figure 9-8b Damage to the Intervertebral Discs
Compressed area of spinal nerve Spinal nerve Spinal cord Nucleus pulposus of herniated disc Anulus fibrosus A sectional view through a herniated disc, showing the release of the nucleus pulposus and its effect on the spinal cord and adjacent spinal nerves 62
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9-4 Intervertebral Articulations
Movements of the Vertebral Column Flexion Extension Lateral flexion Rotation
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint The Shoulder Joint
Also called the glenohumeral joint Allows more motion than any other joint Is the least stable Supported by skeletal muscles, tendons, ligaments Ball-and-socket diarthrosis Between head of humerus and glenoid cavity of scapula
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Socket of the Shoulder Joint Glenoid labrum
Deepens socket of glenoid cavity Fibrocartilage lining Extends past the bone
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Processes of the Shoulder Joint
Acromion (clavicle) and coracoid process (scapula) Project laterally, superior to the humerus Help stabilize the joint
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Ligaments Shoulder Separation
Glenohumeral Coracohumeral Coraco-acromial Coracoclavicular Acromioclavicular Shoulder Separation Dislocation of the shoulder joint
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Muscles (Rotator Cuff) Supraspinatus
Infraspinatus Subscapularis Teres minor
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9-5 The Shoulder Joint Shoulder Bursae Subacromial Subcoracoid
Subdeltoid Subscapular
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Figure 9-9a The Shoulder Joint
Acromioclavicular ligament Coracoclavicular ligaments Tendon of supraspinatus muscle Clavicle Acromion Articular capsule Coraco-acromial ligament Subdeltoid bursa Coracoid process Scapula Synovial membrane Articular cartilages Joint cavity Humerus Glenoid labrum Articular capsule Anterior view, frontal section 70
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Figure 9-9b The Shoulder Joint
Acromioclavicular ligament Clavicle Coraco-acromial ligament Coracoclavicular ligaments Tendon of supraspinatus muscle Tendon of biceps brachii muscle Coracohumeral ligament (cut) Acromion Coracoid process Subacromial bursa Subcoracoid bursa Tendon of infraspinatus muscle Subscapular bursa Subscapularis muscle Teres minor muscle Glenohumeral ligaments Articular capsule Glenoid cavity Scapula Glenoid labrum Lateral view of pectoral girdle 71
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9-5 The Elbow Joint The Elbow Joint A stable hinge joint
With articulations involving humerus, radius, and ulna
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Articulations of the Elbow Humero-ulnar joint
Largest articulation Trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna Limited movement
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Articulations of the Elbow Humeroradial joint
Smaller articulation Capitulum of humerus and head of radius
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Figure 9-10a The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments
Humerus Radial collateral ligament Radial tuberosity Antebrachial interosseous membrane Radius Ulna Capitulum Annular ligament (covering head and neck of radius) Lateral view 75
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9-5 The Elbow Joint Supporting Structures of the Elbow
Biceps brachii muscle Attached to radial tuberosity Controls elbow motion Elbow Ligaments Radial collateral Annular Ulnar collateral
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Figure 9-10b The Right Elbow Joint Showing Stabilizing Ligaments
Tendon of biceps brachii muscle Annular ligament Humerus Articular capsule Antebrachial interosseous membrane Medial epicondyle Ulnar collateral ligament Radius Ulna Olecranon of ulna Medial view 77
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9-6 The Hip Joint The Hip Joint Also called coxal joint
Strong ball-and-socket diarthrosis Wide range of motion
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9-6 The Hip Joint Structures of the Hip Joint
Head of femur fits into it Socket of acetabulum Which is extended by fibrocartilaginous acetabular labrum
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9-6 The Hip Joint Ligaments of the Hip Joint Iliofemoral Pubofemoral
Ischiofemoral Transverse acetabular Ligamentum teres
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Figure 9-11a The Right Hip Joint
Iliofemoral ligament Fibrocartilage pad Acetabular labrum Ligament of the femoral head Acetabulum Transverse acetabular ligament (spanning acetabular notch) Fat pad in acetabular fossa A lateral view with the femur removed 81
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Figure 9-11b The Right Hip Joint
Pubofemoral ligament Greater trochanter Iliofemoral ligament Lesser trochanter An anterior view 82
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Figure 9-11c The Right Hip Joint
Iliofemoral ligament Ischiofemoral ligament Greater trochanter Lesser trochanter Ischial tuberosity A posterior view, showing addi- tional ligaments that add strength to the capsule 83
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9-6 The Knee Joint The Knee Joint A complicated hinge joint
Transfers weight from femur to tibia Articulations of the knee joint Two femur–tibia articulations At medial and lateral condyles One between patella and patellar surface of femur
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9-6 The Knee Joint The Articular Capsule and Joint Cavity
Medial and lateral menisci Fibrocartilage pads At femur–tibia articulations Cushion and stabilize joint Give lateral support
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9-6 The Knee Joint Seven Major Supporting Ligaments
Patellar ligament (anterior) 2. & 3. Two popliteal ligaments (posterior) 4. & 5. Anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments (inside joint capsule) Tibial collateral ligament (medial) Fibular collateral ligament (lateral)
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Figure 9-12a The Right Knee Joint
Quadriceps tendon Patella Joint capsule Patellar retinaculae Tibial collateral ligament Fibular collateral ligament Patellar ligament Tibia Anterior view, superficial layer 87
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Figure 9-12b The Right Knee Joint
Femur Joint capsule Plantaris muscle Gastrocnemius muscle, medial head Gastrocnemius muscle, lateral head Bursa Fibular collateral ligament Tibial collateral ligament Cut tendon of biceps femoris muscle Popliteal ligaments Popliteus muscle Tibia Fibula Posterior view, superficial layer 88
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Figure 9-12c The Right Knee Joint
Patellar surface Fibular collateral ligament Posterior cruciate ligament Lateral condyle Medial condyle Tibial collateral ligament Lateral meniscus Cut tendon Medial meniscus Anterior cruciate ligament Tibia Fibula Deep anterior view, flexed 89
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Figure 9-12d The Right Knee Joint
Femur Posterior cruciate ligament Fibular collateral ligament Medial condyle Lateral condyle Tibial collateral ligament Lateral meniscus Medial meniscus Cut tendon Anterior cruciate ligament Fibula Tibia Deep posterior view, extended 90
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Articulations
Degenerative Changes Rheumatism A pain and stiffness of skeletal and muscular systems Arthritis All forms of rheumatism that damage articular cartilages of synovial joints Osteoarthritis Caused by wear and tear of joint surfaces, or genetic factors affecting collagen formation Generally in people over age 60
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Articulations
Rheumatoid Arthritis An inflammatory condition Caused by infection, allergy, or autoimmune disease Involves the immune system Gouty Arthritis Occurs when crystals (uric acid or calcium salts) Form within synovial fluid Due to metabolic disorders
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9-7 Effects of Aging on Articulations
Joint Immobilization Reduces flow of synovial fluid Can cause arthritis symptoms Treated by continuous passive motion or CPM (therapy) Bones and Aging Bone mass decreases Bones weaken Increases risk of hip fracture, hip dislocation, or pelvic fracture
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bone Recycling Living bones maintain equilibrium between: Bone building (osteoblasts) And breakdown (osteoclasts)
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Factors Affecting Bone Strength Age Physical stress Hormone levels Calcium and phosphorus uptake and excretion Genetic and environmental factors
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bones Support Body Systems Support and protect other systems Store fat, calcium, and phosphorus Manufacture cells for immune system
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9-8 Integration with Other Systems
Bones Support Body Systems Disorders in other body systems can cause: Bone tumors Osteoporosis Arthritis Rickets (vitamin D deficiency)
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