1. Motivation

2. Motivation
Motivation is a need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.
Alan Ralston was motivated to cut his arm in order to free himself from a rock that pinned him down.
AP Photo/ Rocky Mountain News, Judy Walgren
Alan Ralston

3. Perspectives on Motivation
Perspectives to explain motivation include the following:
Instinct Theory
Drive-Reduction Theory
Arousal Theory
Hierarchy of Motives
Self-determination Theory
OBJECTIVE 1| Define motivation as psychologists use the term today, and name four perspectives useful for studying motivated behaviors.

4. Instincts & Evolutionary Psychology
Instincts are complex behaviors that have fixed patterns throughout different species and are not learned (Tinbergen, 1951).
OBJECTIVE 2| Discuss the similarities and differences between instinct theory and evolutionary perspective.
Tony Brandenburg/ Bruce Coleman, Inc.
© Ariel Skelley/ Masterfile
Where the woman builds different kinds of houses
the bird builds only one kind of nest.

5. Drive-Reduction Theory
When the instinct theory of motivation failed it was replaced by the drive-reduction theory. A physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need (Hull, 1951).
OBJECTIVE 3| Explain how drive-reduction theory views human motivation.

6. Drive Reduction
The physiological aim of drive reduction is homeostasis, the maintenance of a steady internal state (e.g., maintenance of steady body temperature).
Drive
Reduction
Food
Empty Stomach
(Food Deprived)
Stomach Full
Organism

7. Incentive
Where our needs push, incentives (positive or negative stimuli) pull us in reducing our drives.
A person who smells baking bread
(incentive) may feel a hunger drive.

8. Higher Order Needs Henry Murray
“higher order” needs: not physiologically based
e.g.s: Need for Affiliation
Need for Achievement etc.

9. The Need to Belong
“[Man] is a social animal,” (Aristotle). Separation from others increases our need to belong.
OBJECTIVE 17| Describe the adaptive value of social attachments, and identify both healthy and unhealthy consequences of our need to belong.
20th Century Fox/ Dreamworks/ The Kobal Collection
“Cast Away,” Tom Hanks, suffers
from social starvation.

10. Aiding Survival
Social bonds boosted our ancestors’ survival rates. These bonds led to the following:
Protecting against predators, especially for the young.
Procuring food.
Reproducing the next offspring.

11. Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (1970) suggested that certain needs have priority over others. Physiological needs like breathing, thirst, and hunger come before psychological needs such as achievement, self-esteem, and the need for recognition.
OBJECTIVE 5| Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
( )

12. Hierarchy of Needs Hurricane Survivors Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis
Mario Tama/ Getty Images
Joe Skipper/ Reuters/ Corbis
David Portnoy/ Getty Images for Stern
Menahem Kahana/ AFP/ Getty Images
Hurricane Survivors

13. Self-Determination Theory
Deci & Ryan (2000)
Basic Needs:
Relatedness, Competence, Autonomy
Motivation: Intrinsic Vs. Extrinsic
(Autonomous Vs. Controlled self-regulation)
Autonomous motivation  better goal progress and higher satisfaction
Excessive controlling rewards can undermine IM (“overjustification effect”)
Autonomy support  increased autonomous motivation

14. Challenging Goals
Specific challenging goals motivate people to reach higher achievement levels, especially if there is feedback such as progress reports.

15. How to motivate people avoid stifling intrinsic motivation
support autonomous motivation
provide informative feedback rather than control
find out what’s important to the individual