1. Qualitative Research

2. Definitions l Quantitative Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by isolating and measuring components of that reality without regard to their contextual setting. l Qualitative Research - investigation in which the researcher attempts to understand some larger reality by examining it in a holistic way or by examining components of that reality within their contextual setting.

3. Different Ways of Looking at Things l Quantitative u Positivistic u Epistemological basis is Realism u Dates to the Age of Enlightenment l Qualitative u Naturalistic (Post-Positivistic [PRE?]) u Epistemological basis is Idealism u Dates informally to prehistoric times Formally to ancient Greece

4. Quantitative Research u Reality is independent of human understanding u Reality can be defined as separate and observable variables u Goal of research is to define and measure those variables u Most accurate way to measure variables is individually and in isolation u We understand reality by defining all the pertinent variables

5. Qualitative Research l Human understanding and interpretation define reality l Complex reality can be understood only as amalgam and not as simply a sum of its parts l Goal of research is to examine complex phenomena to define the reality within l To be meaningful, inquiry must be holistic and contextual

6. Researchers Argue u Quantitative researchers fail because they can neither adequately define nor accurately measure enough of the variables to understand complex natural interactions. u Qualitative researchers cannot rigorously examine the detailed structures underlying complex natural interactions.

7. Researchers Argue u Purists contend u Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are incompatible because they have different epistemological bases. u Using them together is mixing paradigms. u Others believe u Qualitative and quantitative methodologies are simply different ways of looking at phenomena u Using them together is symbiotic

8. Characteristics of Qualitative Research u Purpose is understanding u Oriented toward discovery u Uses subjective data u Extracts meaning from data u Interprets results in context u Focus is holistic

9. Advantages of Qualitative Research u In-depth Examination of Phenomena u Uses subjective information u Not limited to rigidly definable variables u Examine complex questions that can be impossible with quantitative methods u Deal with value-laden questions u Explore new areas of research u Build new theories

10. Disadvantages of Qualitative Research u Subjectivity leads to procedural problems u Replicability is very difficult u Researcher bias is built in and unavoidable u In-depth, comprehensive approach to data gathering limits scope u Labor intensive, expensive u Not understood well by classical researchers

11. Organizational Structures u Historical Analysis u Ethnography u Phenomenology u Life History, Chronology, Historiography u Case Study

12. Historical Analysis u Archival Research u Primary Documents u Secondary Sources u Artifacts u Relics u Oral Histories

13. Ethnography u External Observation u Passive Observation u Balanced Participation Observation u Participant Observation

14. Life History, Chronology, Historiography u Archival/Historical u Personal Journals u Written Journals u Electronic Journals u Electronic Media u Long Term Observation u Interviews

15. Case Study u Detailed, in-depth examination of a person, group, or setting u Multiple data sources, perspectives u Focus is on the individual or group, not the population u Meaning is extracted from observation u Findings are instructive, not generalizable

16. u Researcher seeks a complete picture of a total, complex situation u There may be no attempt to isolate specific variables or to answer specific questions u If specific questions are asked, the answers are sought within the context in which the phenomena naturally occur. Holistic Approach

17. Internal Validity u Validity is primarily a positivistic concept u In qualitative research, equates to credibility u The right setting and informants u Accurate reflection of situation, informant perceptions u Multiple approaches lead to similar results u Multiple researchers yield similar interpretations u Peer review/Informant review

18. External Validity u In qualitative research, equates to transferability u Transferability is responsibility of reader, not researcher u Provide dense description u Use nominated informant sample u Provide detailed demographic and situational description

19. To Seek Validity (Wolcott, 1990) (Think Credibility, Transferability) u Listen and observe carefully u Be candid u Record accurately u Begin writing report early u Use primary data in report u Use all data for final report u Seek feedback u Seek balance u Write accurately

20. Reliability u Reliability is primarily a positivistic concept u Reliability in qualitative research equates to dependability u Different researchers reach similar interpretations u Repeated examinations produce similar observations u Multiple researchers produce similar interpretations of the same data

21. Triangulation u Multiple perspectives, data sources, researchers, data collection techniques u Strongest evidence for credibility, dependability, transferability u Concept originated in navigation u Navigation using known points u The more known points/angles, the more accurate the fix on the unknown location

22. Corroboration u Multiple informants hold similar perceptions u Same informant responds consistently to related questions u An attempt to confirm consistency of perception not accuracy of perception

23. Constant Comparison u Collect and analyze initial data u Develop tentative conclusions, hypotheses, themes u Collect and analyze additional data u Test against initial conclusions, hypotheses, themes u Seek new perspectives, data sources u Write, re-write, re-assess, re-write, etc...

24. Discovery Approach to Qualitative Research u Identify setting to be studied u Conduct initial data collection u Analyze for emerging themes u Formulate tentative questions, hypotheses, theses u Focus subsequent data collection to test/expand initial themes u Questions, themes, hypotheses, theories EMERGE from the research

25. Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research u Define specific questions u Define setting u Identify informants u Collect initial data u Develop initial hypothesis

26. Analytic Induction Approach to Qualitative Research u Collect additional data to test fit of hypothesis u Redefine questions or reformulate hypothesis based on further data collection and analysis u Search for negative case to disprove hypothesis

27. Qualitative Research: A Different Way of Looking at the World u Naturalistic u Holistic u Contextual u Rich u In-depth u Reality derived not measured

28. Unstructured Interview u Define basic goal u Select setting for comfort of informant u Try to establish rapport, trust u Gently guide discussion toward goal u Pursue profitable leads, tangents u Make careful notes or electronic recording u during interview if practicable u as soon afterward as possible otherwise

29. Structured Interview u Define precise objectives u Develop, validate, field test interview schedule (protocol) u Select setting for comfort of informant u Try to establish rapport, trust u Initiate interview using protocol u Focus on specifics of protocol

30. Structured Interview u Do not accept yes/no responses, probe for more u Pursue profitable tangents u Remain flexible to encourage informant to talk u Gently guide informant through protocol u Make careful notes or electronic recording u during interview if practicable u as soon afterward as possible otherwise

31. Focus Group u Define goals u Select participants u Establish rapport u Initiate discussion u Encourage free discussion, but u Guide discussion toward the goals u Avoid contaminating discussion with own biases

32. Ethnographic Observation u Identify Goals u Select site u Establish rapport u Determine critical informants u Make detailed field notes u Begin writing report from the start u Observations external, passive, balanced, or participant