Combined Lecture Slides: Weeks 4 – 7 Topics in Goldstein Chapters 5 - 8 Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2018 Instructor: John Miyamoto Combined.

Combined Lecture Slides: Weeks 4 – 7 Topics in Goldstein Chapters 5 - 8
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2018 Instructor: John Miyamoto Combined Slide File = <\inet\p355\lec cmb.no.anno.p355.spr18.pptx> Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Lecture 04-1 This file does not exist because midterm 1 was held on Monday April 16. Therefore there are no lecture slides for this date. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Next: Lecture Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory & Working Memory
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: John Miyamoto 04/17/2018: Lecture 04-2 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

To Be Discussed Later Memory Systems UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Overview of Memory Systems:
This lecture Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory / Working Memory (STM / WM) Long-Term Memory (LTM) What function do these memory systems serve? Later WM Multiple Components LTM Multiple Components Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Are Memory Systems?

What Are Memory Systems?
Memory systems retain perceptions, images, motor patterns, experiences, ideas, thoughts, and intentions that were present at one time but are no longer present. Major Functions of Memory Systems Store information over a period of time (seconds; minutes; hours; years) Pass information between different memory systems Encode information (put information into a long-term storage) Retrieve memories or previous learning based on relevance or usefulness in current processing. Especially important: Retrieval of information that is relevant to a current activity. Manipulate information in working memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Modal Model of Memory

The Modal Memory Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968)
Goldstein Figure 5.2 Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Happens When Rachel Looks Up a Phone Number

What happens as Rachel looks up a phone number?
(a) She looks at the page in the phone book Perceptual information enters sensory memory. (b) She pays attention to the relevant phone number. The number is stored in short-term memory (STM). (c) She dials the phone number while main taining the number in STM (rehearsal). Example Continued UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What happens as Rachel looks up a phone number?
(d) She memorizes the phone number (stores the number in long term memory or LTM). This process is called encoding. (e) Days later, she retrieves the number from LTM. Return to the Modal Memory Model UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Goldstein Figure 5.2 Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions The Modal Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Distinction Between STM and LTM

Distinction Between STM & LTM
Standard STM example: Remember the following words: We will wait, perhaps, 15 seconds. Then I’ll ask you to tell me the words that you read in the order that they were written. Another STM example: You know where you are right now and what you are doing there. You are actively processing this information (along with other thoughts). LTM refers to a variety of memory processes that allow retrieval of memories that are not currently preserved in STM. hand, chair, reed, bottle UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Illustration of LTM vs STM Distinction from Goldstein Textbook

Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
List of Functions That Are Included in LTM UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

LTM Includes ..... Important information about the self and events in the world, but also, ... Trivial information about what has happened in the recent past, e.g., what was the picture at the beginning of the lecture), and also, .... “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what is an apple, a pencil; which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc. How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number, cook a meal, .... Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere of a dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive. UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Next Topic = Sensory Memory

Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input Control Processes, e.g., rehearsal Output: Speech & Actions Next Sensory Memory – brief storage of current perceptual inputs. STM – short-term storage of current mental activity STM or Working Memory (WM) has multiple components LTM – long-term storage of experiences, thoughts, facts LTM also has multiple components Definition of Sensory Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Sensory Memory Example: Sparkler trail or flash image in a dark room.
Sensory memory is the retention of the effects of sensory stimulation. Very brief – less then 1 second. Sensory memory is partly due to processes that are close to level of the receptors, but it has a major component that is central. "Central" means at the level of the cortex, i.e., at the level of the visual cortex for visual stimuli; at the level of the auditory cortex for auditory stimuli, etc. What are the capacity limits for visual sensory memory? How much information is stored? How long can it be stored? UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram: Where Is the Capacity Limit in the Memory System?

Evidence for a Capacity Limit on Sensory or Short-Term Memory
Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all of the letters in a specific row, e.g., in Row 3? E R U P W I N Q M X T V Y S O K Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Continue with Slide with Example of Pre-Cueing

Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all of the letters in a specific row, e.g., in Row 3? The task is easy if I tell you the row to remember before I flash the letter array. (See letter array to the right.) Pay attention to Row 2. Answer: P E C Z E R U P W I N Q M X T V Y S O K O A W N P E C Z H X M U V F B I O A W N P E C Z H X M U V F B I Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Problem is Hard If You Must Remember All f Letters

Suppose a letter array is flashed on the screen to the right. Can you name all 16 letters in the array? The task is hard if I ask you to remember all 16 letters in the letter array. (See letter array to the right.) What were the 16 letters in the array? # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # # U R V X Y Z Q M I C D W L T J N U R V X Y Z Q M I C D W L T J N Is the Capacity Limit on Sensory Memory or STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Controversy: Is the capacity limit a limit on sensory memory, or short-term memory?
Transfer too slow? Limit here? Limit here? Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Input We have evidence that a capacity limit exists: You can accurately report a pre-selected 4 letters from a 12 letter array, but you can't accurately report all 12 letters. Is there a limit on the capacity of sensory memory? Sperling's Partial Report Paradigm UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Sperling’s Partial Report Procedure (Paradigm)
Digression on Terminology: An "experimental paradigm" is a type of experiment. Often there will be many experiments that all use the same paradigm. Purpose of Sperling's partial report paradigm: To determine what are the limits on the capacity of sensory memory. To save lecture time, I may cut short the following explanation of Sperling's partial report paradigm. (To discuss, or not to discuss?) Students will be responsible for knowing its purpose and its conclusions. Notice use of timing of stimulus to explore the way the information is processed. Sperling’s partial report paradigm is important for perceptual psychology. Not so important for higher cognitive processes. UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Sperling's Partial Report Paradigm

Measuring the Capacity & Duration of Sensory Memory
Sperling's Partial Report Paradigm 3 x 4 array of letters displayed for 50 ms (0.05 seconds) The image of the array persists in sensory memory even after it is physically gone.  How much information is stored in sensory memory?  How long does the information last in sensory memory? Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 More-Or-Less Unlimited Capacity of Sensory Memory

What is the Capacity of Sensory Memory?
 How much information is stored in sensory memory? Capacity is very large, but there is no known way to quantify how large. Remainder of this discussion addresses the question:  How long does the information last in sensory memory? Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Sperling's Paradigm: Whole Report Condition

Whole Report Condition: No Cues Are Given
3 x 4 array of letters displayed for 50 ms (0.05 seconds) Subject must try to report all 12 letters in the array. Result: 4.5 letters correctly reported out of 12 possible (average result) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Partial Report Condition: 0.0 Delay in Tone Cue

Partial Report Condition: 0.0 Sec. Delay in Tone Cue
3 x 4 array of letters displayed for 50 ms (0.05 seconds) Simultaneous with disappearance of array, subject hears a tone High tone  Report Row 1 Medium tone  Report Row Low tone  Report Row 3 Result: 3.3 letters correctly reported out of 4 possible (average result) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Partial Report Condition: 1.0 Delay in Tone Cue

Condition 3: Partial Report, 1 Sec. Delay in Tone Cue
3 x 4 array of letters displayed for 50 ms (0.05 seconds) 1 second after disappearance of array, subject hears a tone High tone  Report Row 1 Medium tone  Report Row Low tone  Report Row 3 Result: 1.0 letters correctly reported out of 4 possible (average result) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of Results for Duration of Sensory Memory

Summary of Results for Duration of Sensory Memory
Amount of information in sensory memory decreases over time. By a little more than 1.0 seconds it is gone. (How do we know that the capacity of sensory memory is very large? With 0 delay, you can cue any position in the array and get accurate memory of what is at that position.) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Standard Model: Conclusion re Capacity of Sensory Memory

Conclusion of Partial Report Experiment
Very large, possibly unlimited capacity. Information decays to 0 in about 1 second. Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is Meant By Capacity Limits on Memory?

What Is Meant by Limits on Memory Capacity?
Limit on memory capacity refers to a limit on the amount of information that can be held in memory. Not the amount of information that can be input to memory (encoding), and not the amount of information that can be retrieved from memory (retrieval). Sensory memory – very large, approximately unlimited Short-Term memory – ? Long-Term memory – very large, approximately unlimited Next: Introduction to Short-Term Memory & Working Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Overview of Short-Term Memory & Working Memory

Short-Term Memory & Working Memory

Lecture probably ends here
Outline Finish sensory memory topic. How much information can be retained in Short-Term Memory (STM)? How long does information last in STM? Brown-Peterson task Retroactive and proactive interference Proactive interference and the Brown-Peterson paradigm Lecture probably ends here Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Finish Discussion of Duration of Information in Sensory Memory

Summary of Results for Duration of Sensory Memory
Amount of information in sensory memory decreases over time. By a little more than 1.0 seconds it is gone. (How do we know that the capacity of sensory memory is very large? With 0 delay, you can cue any position in the array and get accurate memory of what is at that position.) Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Standard Model: Conclusion re Capacity of Sensory Memory

Conclusion of Partial Report Experiment
Very large, possibly unlimited capacity. Information decays to 0 in about 1 second. Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is Meant By Capacity Limits on Memory?

What Is Meant by Limits on Memory Capacity?
Limit on memory capacity refers to a limit on the amount of information that can be held in memory. Not the amount of information that can be input to memory (encoding), and not the amount of information that can be retrieved from memory (retrieval). Sensory memory – very large, approximately unlimited Short-Term memory – ? Long-Term memory – very large, approximately unlimited Next: Introduction to Short-Term Memory & Working Memory UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Overview of Short-Term Memory & Working Memory

Overview of Short-Term Memory (STM) & Working Memory (WM)
Intermediate processing stage between sensory memory & long-term memory Emphasis on quantitative aspects: Limited in amount of information storage. Limited duration of storage. Working Memory (WM) – evolved out of the concept of STM Same as above plus some additional ideas Multicomponent system – verbal, visual-spatial, episodic components Emphasis on manipulation of information & control of information flow. UW Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Three Important Aspects of STM

Three Important Characteristics of STM
Short-Term Memory = STM STM has limited capacity Active maintenance is needed to retain information in STM. Without active maintenance information is quickly lost from STM. Information in STM is high accessible. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Capacity Limits on STM - Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two

What Are the Limits on STM Capacity?
George Miller, "The Magic Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two." What is this about? Two Aspects of STM Capacity: Quantity & Duration Quantity: How many separate pieces of information can be held in STM? Duration: How long does information last in STM if we don't actively process it? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Demo re Measurement of Memory Span

Demo: Memory Span for Digits
On each trial, you will see a sequence of numbers (digits) presented one after the other. Your Task: Write down all of the digits in the order in which they were presented. For example, if you see    Write down: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Demo with 4 Digits – Fixation Point

Digit Span Trial with 4 Digits
* Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Sec. per Slide

Digit 7 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Were the Digits? Correct Answer 7 3 2 5
Demo with 10 Digits – Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit Span Trial with 10 Digits
* Display Digits – Automatic Timer, 1 Second per Slide Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Were the Digits? Correct Answer Obviously, 10 digits are much harder to retain than 4 digits digits would be impossible to retain Except possibly if you had special training to do this task. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2

Memory Span for Digits: About 7  2
Clearly retaining 3 or 4 digits is easy. Retaining 15 or more digits is impossible. Typical limit is around 7  2 is the memory span for digits Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Luck & Vogel (1997): Memory Span for Colors & Positions

Memory Span for Color & Location
Luck & Vogel (1997) is described in Figure 5.8 and Figure 5.9. Subject’s Task: Subject sees some colored squares on one slide followed by another slide with colored squares. Subject’s task is to say whether the two slides are identical or different. Result: Performance drops off radically after presentation contains more than 3 squares. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents

Typical Results for Memory Span with Different Contents
We can repeat this experiment with different types of items. Auditory digits Nonsense syllables – E.g., "KOR", "PAV", "FUP", ..... Short words chosen at random – "BAT", "TOW", "EAT", ..... Long words chosen at random – "PERISCOPE", "BILATERAL", .... George Miller's "Magic Number Seven Plus or Minus Two". Measured memory span is somewhat different for different types of items. More complex items  smaller memory span But memory span is always limited, possibly Conclusion: There is a strong capacity limit on STM, i.e., there is a limit on the total number of items that can be retained in STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to "Magical Number 7 +/- 2: Raise Issue of Chunking

Magical Number Seven Plus or Minus Two
Miller, G. A. (1956) The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63, 81–97. There is a strong limit on the quantity of information stored in STM. Roughly the same limit applies to many different contents, e.g., digits, nonsense syllables, short words, long words, colors in different positions on a screen, tones of different loudness or of different pitch, etc. Limitation on STM capacity only applies if there are no meaningful relationships between separate items When meaningful relationships exist among the items, many more items can be held in STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Some Issues re Measures of Memory Span

Some Issues Regarding Measures of STM Capacity Limits
The preceding examples use low-meaning stimuli. Would the results differ if we used stimuli with more meaning? Example: Waiter or waitress taking a dinner order: I'll have the mushroom soup, the filet of sole with green beans, and rice. (14 words) I'll have a ceasar salad, the flank steak medium rare, carrots and peas, and mashed potatoes. (16 words) I'll have ..... Answer: Yes, the results are different when the stimuli are meaningful. How should we interpret this? (See next slide). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Chunking & Recoding

STM Capacity Limits Apply When Stimuli Are Unrelated
The capacity limit, 7 ± 2, applies to sequences of stimuli .... that do not have an internal organization. Example (no internal organization): EGG, PEN, FOG, CAR, BELT, FLY, .... Example (has internal organization): YESTERDAY I WENT SHOPPING FOR A NEW COAT I WANTED A WARM COAT THAT HAS A HOOD, .... "Chunk" – a larger unit of information built out of related smaller units. "Recoding" – the cognitive process of combining basic pieces of information into larger chunks. Sometimes recoding involves a change in representational format (change in code). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Example of Chunking – Animals List

south north right father mother son left west east back front daughter
Example of Chunking Your Task: Remember the following 12 words: Can you remember the words in the list? south north right father mother son left west east back front daughter Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Display the Array of Words: Comment re Chunking

Example of Chunking Can you remember the words in the list?
Reciprocal relations:  directions of a compass  orientations relative to one's body  roles in a nuclear family The 12 words can be grouped into 3 chunks. north front father south back mother east left brother west right sister Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Chunking in Everyday Experience - END

Chunking in Everyday Experience
Typically everyday experience is meaningful. Not like trying to remember a series of unrelated digits in the lab! In everyday experience, people constantly reorganize the current information in terms of related general knowledge. In a very unfamiliar situation, you may feel overwhelmed with information overload – you aren’t able to chunk effectively in the unfamiliar situation. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Recoding

Recoding "Recoding" – Changing the representational format (change in code) Recoding of information in STM can affect ability to retain information in STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Example of Recoding: Story --> Image

Example of Recoding "It is a cold but sunny winter day. You are looking across Drumheller Fountain. Mt. Rainier is visible in the distance. Two children are playing with a ball next to the fountain. They accidentally throw the ball into the water." If you formed a mental image of the situation, then this is an example of recoding (changing from the verbal format to an image format). Recoding involves changing the cognitive “code." Recoding can increase the amount of information that one can retain in STM by putting it into a form that is more easily retained, e.g., changing verbal information into a mental image. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Codes in STM & LTM: Phonological, Visual, Semantic Codes

Codes in Short-Term & Long-Term Memory
A "code" is a format in which information is represented in the cognitive system. (Not the same as the "neural code") Phonological codes – words represented as sequences of sounds. Visual codes – mental imagery, diagrams, perceptual memories Semantic codes – meanings. Short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM) use all of these codes plus possibly others that are not listed here. Particular tasks may be biased towards one kind of coding. Next: Evidence for different types of mental codes. This evidence presented here is just a taste – later lectures will present much more evidence. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Evidence for Phonological Codes

Evidence for Phonological Codes
Phonological codes (representing words in terms of the sound of the words) Conrad (1964): People who are asked to remember visually presented letters, make mistakes that confuse a correct letter with similar sounding letters. Example: Suppose you are asked to remember AFTR. (The letters are presented visually one after the another a screen.) Common mistake: ASTR or AFPR Notice "S" sounds like "F" and "P" sounds like "T". The letters were presented visually, so the effect of sound similarity is due to the way the subject represents the stimulus, and not the stimulus alone. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Evidence for Visual Codes – Mental Rotation Studies

Evidence for Visual Codes: Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
TASK: As quickly as possible, decide whether the two figures shown to the right have the same or different shapes. Response time for "identical" figures is a linear (straight-line) function of the angle of rotation between the figures. Easy to explain if subjects are rotating a mental image. Hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. The mental rotation experiment which is used as an example in this lecture is described in Goldstein pp. 134 – The main point of this example is that the most plausible explanation for the result is that subjects create a mental image of the geometric figure which they manipulate (rotate) in working memory in order to determine whether the figures are congruent or incongruent. This is evidence for image-like representations in STM. Response Time Angle of Rotation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Mental Rotation Experiment - Interpretation

Evidence for Visual Codes: Shepard's Mental Rotation Experiments
Result is easy to explain if we assume that subjects are rotating a mental image. Results are hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. “Propositional representation” = Symbolic code like human language or a computer language. Easy to explain if subjects are rotating a mental image. Hard to explain if mental representation is exclusively propositional. Response Time Angle of Rotation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Semantic Codes

Semantic Codes Confusions between long-term memories are usually based on similarity of meaning rather than on similarity of sound or appearance. Example: Suppose you must remember the following words DOG, PONY, WOLF, ELEPHANT, PENCIL, WHALE Recognition memory test: Did the list contain "PONY"? Did the list contain "EAGLE"? Later you are more likely to say "Yes" to "HORSE" than to "LOG." (Intrusion Error: False recognition due to similarity of meaning) Later you are more likely to say "No" to "PENCIL" than to "WOLF." (Omission Error: False rejection due to dissimilarity of meaning) Semantic codes also play a role in STM but these examples are more complicated. * Proactive interference is an example of an effect of semantic coding on STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary re Codes

Wednesday, 18 April, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Summary re Memory Codes
Recoding: Changing the code in which information is represented, e.g., changing from a phonological code to a visual code. The phonological code is the primary code for STM. The semantic code is the primary code for LTM. Other codes are also used in STM and LTM, e.g., visual code. Some tasks are easier to perform by using one type of code or another. Recoding can sometimes help to overcome capacity limits of STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Chess Masters: Example of Chunking & Recoding

Outline Chunking in WM/STM Brown-Peterson Paradigm: How long does information last in WM/STM? Causes of forgetting from WM/STM The Working Memory (WM) Model Phonological Loop (PL) Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSP) Central Executive (CE) What is the phonological loop? Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Chess Masters & Chess Novices: Chunking & WM/STM Memory Span

Famous Example of Chunking and/or Recoding Chess Masters versus Chess Novices
Chase and Simon (1973a, 1973b): Chess masters can remember the locations of a large number of pieces on a chess board even if it is only briefly flashed in front of them. Chess novices perform much worse on WM/STM retention of chess pieces on a chess board. Chase and Simon's study is discussed in Chapter 12 of Goldstein (2014, 4th edition). I am discussing it here because it illustrates how chess experts and chess novices differ in their use of memory resources. In particular, chess experts can chunk and recode chess information in ways that novices cannot. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Overview of Results: (Chess Masters/Novices) x (Meaningful/Random Boards)

Chess Masters versus Chess Novices
Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master Novice (b) Random placement Master Novice (a) Actual game positions Actual Game Positions = Chess pieces are arranged as in a real game Random Placement = Chess pieces are arranged at random; These positions could never occur in a real game. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Focus on Left Panel: Actual Game Positions

Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master does better than novice because he can chunk based on strategic relationships. Master Novice (b) Random placement Master Novice (a) Actual game positions Chess masters are much better than chess novices at remembering chess positions from real games. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Focus on Right Panel: Random Arrangements of Chess Positions

Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master does better than novice because he can chunk based on strategic relationships. Master does no better than novice because he can’t chunk. Master Novice (b) Random placement Master Novice (a) Actual game positions Masters and novices are equally bad at remembering random chess positions (impossible positions) on a chess board. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 ##

Summary: Chunking, Recoding, STM Capacity Limits
As we take in information, we reorganize it into larger chunks, and we recode the information into other mental formats. Knowledge, learning, and past experience help us use our limited-capacity short-term memory more effectively. Are experiments that study STM capacity limits relevant to everyday life? In everyday life, we almost never try to remember sequences of unrelated information. Yes – the capacity limits are always present, even if they are hidden in everyday life by our chunking and recoding strategies. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Brown-Peterson: How Long Does Information Last in WM/STM?

How Long Does Information Last in WM/STM?
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. Preview of Conclusion: Information is lost from WM/STM after 15 – 20 seconds, and sometimes less. Examples of forgetting from STM: Forgetting what you are doing – suddenly you can’t remember why you picked up a tool or walked into a room, etc. Your intention of what to do next is part of the content of STM – if something bumps it out, you may be temporarily unable to retrieve the intention. Example: If you remember something you want to do when you get home, but if you don’t write it down, you may forget it and not remember it later. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 The Brown-Peterson Paradigm - Description of the Task

Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. The Brown-Peterson task is the Coglab for this week. Example of the Task: Remember three letters: Count backwards by 3’s from the given number: Stop counting and report the letters when the experimenter tells you to do so. P N R P N R 108 Duration of delay is different on different trials, e.g., 5 second, 10 second, 15 seconds, ..... Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Brown-Peterson Paradigm – What Is the Purpose of the Brown-Peterson Task?

What is the Purpose of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm?
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. Remember three letters, e.g., “P N R" Count backwards by 3's from a given number Report the letters after a delay Goal: Measure decay characteristics of STM. Counting backwards by 3’s is an example of articulatory suppression. Later when we discuss working memory, we will say that counting backwards by 3’s suppresses rehearsal in the phonological loop (PL). Assumption 1: While you are counting backwards, you cannot rehearse “P N R”. Assumption 2: Counting backwards by 3's does not interfere with retention of "P N R". Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Brown-Peterson Task – Averaged Results

Results for the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds IMPORTANT FACT: These results are averaged over many trials. Superficially, the results support the hypothesis that without active processing, almost all information is lost after about 15 – 20 seconds. Keppel & Underwood: Reanalysis for 3rd & 18th Trial Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Keppel & Underwood’s Reanalysis of Brown-Peterson Results
Delay in Seconds Panel (b): Performance on the 1st trial of Brown-Peterson task. Panel (c): Performance on the 3rd trial of Brown-Peterson task. Performance at 18 second delay gets worse as subject performs more memory trials! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Graph – Hypothesis That Proactive Interference Causes Forgetting

Bottom Line re Duration of Storage in WM/STM
To keep information in WM/STM, you need to actively process the information. Phonological rehearsal & forming mental images Associating contents of WM/STM with information in LTM (thinking) Without active processing, information in WM/STM is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. In everyday life, information may be lost from WM/STM even more quickly, e.g., new information interferes with the current contents of WM/STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?

What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
Three hypotheses (not mutually exclusive): Competition – a new focus of attention draws attention capacity away from current contents of WM/STM. New information pushes aside current contents of WM/STM. Interference – something you learn or already know conflicts with the retention of other information because it is similar in meaning or form. Decay – no one has yet proved definitively whether decay occurs. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Competition Causes Forgetting from WM/STM

Competition Causes Forgetting from WM/STM
Suppose that T and X are two different mental tasks to which one can devote attention. In Brown-Peterson task, T = retention of three letters, e.g., F, L, W, in STM; X = counting backwards by 3's from a designated starting number. In everyday life, my attention is usually divided between several lines of thought. If some focus of attention becomes especially interesting, other competing foci get less attention, or none. If, while maintaining X in WM/STM, attention is diverted to some other topic or task Z, then attention to Z can cause part or all of X to drop out of WM/STM. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Interference Causes Forgetting from WM/STM

Interference Causes Forgetting from WM/STM
Interference – something you learn or already know makes it difficult to remember something else. Retroactive Interference (RI): New learning interferes with recall of previous learning. Example: What did you see when you walked to school 7 days ago? Everything you have seen since then interferes with access to that memory. Example: Julie used to go out with Tom and now she goes out with Ted Memory of Julie/Ted interferes with memory of Julie/Tom. Proactive Interference (PI): Previous learning interferes with recall of new learning. Example: If you already play tennis, it is harder to learn to play badminton than if you already play basketball . Example: It is hard to remember where I parked my car today because I have many memories of parking my car in various places. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Does Decay Cause Forgetting from WM/STM?

Does Decay Cause Forgetting from WM/STM?
Results for the Brown-Peterson task looks like it demonstrates that information decays from WM/STM, but there is actually a different, better explanation. [Topic of Section 4, 4/19/2018] There is no clear evidence that decay from WM/STM occurs, but it is hard to prove that it doesn't occur. [Topic of Section 4, 4/19/2018] Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Overview of the Distinction Between the STM Model and the WM Model

Overview of the STM and WM Models
Short-Term Memory (STM) STM is a single component Main theoretical issue: How much information can be stored in STM? How long does it last? Working Memory (WM) WM has multiple components Main theoretical issues: How is information represented in WM? How is information manipulated in WM? The issue of the duration and quantity of information storage is still important, but question of how WM manipulates information is the central focus of research. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram for the Modal Model of Memory (Contrast with WM Model)

Modal Model of Memory (circa 1970)
Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram for the Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory Model

Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory (WM) Model
Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM?

Next: Section 04 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Proactive Interference and Forgetting in the Brown-Peterson Task
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: Roy Seo 4/20/2018: Section Week 4

Outline Review of Brown-Peterson experiment
Keppel & Underwood’s reanalysis of Brown-Peterson results What causes forgetting in short-term memory? Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. The Brown-Peterson task is this past week’s Coglab. Example of the Task: Remember three letters: Count backwards by 3’s from the given number: Stop counting and report the letters when the experimenter tells you to do so. P N R 108 Duration of delay is different on different trials, e.g., 5 second, 10 second, 15 seconds, ..... Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Brown-Peterson Paradigm – Summary of the Task

What is the Purpose of the Brown-Peterson Paradigm?
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. Remember three letters, e.g., “P N R" Count backwards by 3's from a given number Report the letters after a delay Goal: Measure decay characteristics of STM. Counting backwards by 3’s is an example of articulatory suppression. Later when we discuss working memory, we will say that counting backwards by 3’s suppresses rehearsal in the phonological loop (PL). Assumption 1: While you are counting backwards, you cannot rehearse “P N R”. Assumption 2: Counting backwards by 3's does not interfere with retention of "P N R". Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Brown-Peterson Task – Averaged Results

Results for the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds IMPORTANT FACT: These results are averaged over many trials. Superficially, the results support the hypothesis that without active processing, almost all information is lost after about 15 – 20 seconds. Keppel & Underwood: Reanalysis for 3rd & 18th Trial Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Delay in Seconds Panel (b): Performance on the 1st trial of Brown-Peterson task. Panel (c): Performance on the 3rd trial of Brown-Peterson task. Performance at 18 second delay gets worse as subject performs more memory trials! Same Graph – Hypothesis That Proactive Interference Causes Forgetting Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Delay in Seconds Proactive interference – explained on next slide Why does performance at 18 second delay get worse as subject performs more memory trials? Interference – Definition; Proactive & Retroactive Interference Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Interference – a Cause of Forgetting
Interference as a cause of forgetting – something you learn or already know makes it difficult to remember something else. Retroactive Interference (RI): New learning interferes with recall of previous learning. Example: What did you see when you walked to school 7 days ago? Everything you have seen since then interferes with access to that memory. Example: Julie used to go out with Tom and now she goes out with Ted. Memory of Julie/Ted interferes with memory of Julie/Tom. Proactive Interference (PI): Old learning interferes with recall of new learning. Example: If you already play tennis, it is harder to learn to play badminton than if you already play basketball (not tennis). Example: It is hard to remember where I parked my car today because I have many memories of parking my car in various places. Experimental Design for Wicken’s Exp Showing Release from PI Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Is Due in Part to PI
Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157): Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task Wicken’s experiment uses the Brown-Peterson paradigm. Experiment has 3 groups, but only two are important. Same Slide – Emphasis Rectangle on Fruit Group Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157): Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task Fruit Group: Every trial requires subject to remember 3 fruit. Meat Group: Trials 1 – 3 require remembering meat words. Trial 4 requires remembering fruit words. Results of Wicken’s Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Forgetting in Brown-Peterson Paradigm Results in Part from PI
Fruit Group Trial 1: banana, peach, apple Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (same category) Meat Group Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken Trial 2: bacon, hot doc, beef Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (switch category) Same Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Same Graph Without the Colored Boxes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Fruit Group Trial 1: banana, peach, apple Trial 2: plum, apricot, lime Trial 3: melon, lemon, grape Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (same category) Meat Group Trial 1: salami, pork, chicken Trial 2: bacon, hot doc, beef Trial 3: hamburger, turkey, veal Trial 4: orange, cherry, pineapple (switch category) Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Same Graph: Define “Release from PI” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

PI (Proactive Interference): Previous trials with same category (fruit or meat) interferes with STM retention on current trial. Release from PI: Improved STM retention on trial where PI no longer influences performance. Remember list of fruits after remembering other lists of fruits. Remember list of fruits after remembering lists of meats. Fruit Group Meat Group This figure was cut & pasted from slides distributed with Goldstein, 4th edition. The R-code ‘\p355\rcode\release.fr.pi.fig.5.12.docm’ produces a similar graph. % Recalled After 20 s Delay % Recalled After 20 s Delay Summary: What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Conclusion re Forgetting in the Brown-Peterson Paradigm
Delay in Seconds Proactive interference is a major cause of forgetting in the Brown-Peterson paradigm. Brown-Peterson paradigm attempts to measure decay of memory in STM, but the measurement is confounded with PI (proactive interference). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Would a “Perfect” Method for Testing for Decay in STM Look Like?

Requirements for the "Perfect" Way to Measure Decay in STM
Researcher must discover Task T such that: Performing T does not interfere with retaining some information A in STM, e.g., A could be remembering the words "spoon hawk knot". Performing T prevents rehearsal of the items in A, e.g., prevents rehearsal of "spoon hawk knot." Past learning does not interfere with retention of A, i.e., no proactive interference. In the Brown/Peterson task, T = counting backwards by 3's A = remembering short lists, e.g., short lists of foods, or short lists of digits, or short lists of names, etc. Very hard to discover a Task A that satisfies (1), (2) and (3). Counting backwards does not interfere with retaining word list. Counting backwards prevents rehearsal of word list. 3) Unfortunately, retaining word lists cause proactive interference. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Bottom-Line re Forgetting in STM

What Causes Forgetting from WM/STM?
Brown-Peterson paradigm – an attempt to measure how long information is retained in STM without active processing. General Conclusion: Without active processing, all information is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. What causes forgetting from STM? Interference – it is certain that interference is one cause. Decay – it is hard to prove convincingly that decay occurs; maybe it does but evidence is inconclusive. Examples of forgetting from STM: Forgetting what you are doing – suddenly you can’t remember why you picked up a tool or walked into a room, etc. Your intention of what to do next is part of the content of STM – if something bumps it out, you may be temporarily unable to retrieve the intention. Example: If you remember something you want to do when you get home, but if you don’t write it down, you may forget it and not remember it later. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Bottom Line re Duration of Information Storage in STM

Bottom Line re Duration of Storage in WM/STM
To keep information in WM/STM, you need to actively process the information. Without active processing, information in WM/STM is lost after 15 – 20 seconds. In everyday life, information may be lost from WM/STM even more quickly, e.g., new information might interfere with current contents of WM/STM after a few seconds or less. Why is information lost from WM/STM? Interference – well-established cause of forgetting from WM/STM. Decay – no one has yet proved definitively that decay does or does not occur. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Phonological Loop, Visuospatial Sketchpad & Articulatory Suppression

Outline Working Memory (WM) Model is a multi-component model of STM. Phonological Loop (PL): Phonological similarity effect Word length effect Articulatory suppression reduces phonological similarity effect and word length effect. Visuospatial Sketchpad (VSP) Mental subtraction of images Brooks’ experiment with pointing and verbal responses Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Quiz 4 Will Be an Essay Quiz

Quiz 4 on April 30 is an Essay Quiz
The question on this quiz will be very similar to one of the sample questions in the handout (also, it will be posted on the Psych 355 website). Purpose of Quiz 4 is to give students practice at answering an essay question. Midterm 2 will have an essay question on it. The essay question on Quiz 4 will be graded much more leniently than the essay question on Midterm 2. The TA's will mark the Quiz 4 essay answers to show what would lose points on the midterm exam, even if these errors do not lose points, or only a small fraction of points, on Quiz 4. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Reminder: The Modal Model of Memory with Empasis on STM

Modal Model of Memory (circa 1970)
Control Processes Input Sensory Memory Short-Term Memory Long-Term Memory Output: Speech/Actions Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram for the Baddeley-Hitch Working Memory Model

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide Without the Emphasis Rectangles

Think of the diagram to the right as an expansion & revision of the standard STM model. Phonological Loop (PL) Storage of sounds Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Storage & manipulation of visual images and spatial information. 3. Central Executive (CE) Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL, VSP, and LTM. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL is Part of WM?

What Justifies the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM?
Summary of Evidence for PL (Phonological Loop) Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words. Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G (harder) Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q (easier) Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words than for lists of long words. Articulatory suppression experiments Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Demo of the Phonological Similarity Effect

Demo of Phonological Similarity Effect: Memory Span for Words
On each trial, you will see a sequence of words presented one after the other. Your Task: Write down all of the words in the order in which they were presented. For example, if you see ORANGE  LOOSE  GRIP  TUESDAY Write down: ORANGE, LOOSE, GRIP, TUESDAY Note that ORANGE, TUESDAY, GRIP, LOOSE is incorrect. On each trial, make a mental note of how hard it was to do the task. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Fixation Point for Demo

Word Span Trial with 5 Words: How Hard Is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Next: On Click – Display Stimulus Words on a Timer, 1 Slide per second

Digit EASE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit GONE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit SING Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit TOP Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit CRISP Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: EASE, GONE, SING, TOP, CRISP
Remember how hard was that task. Next: Repeat task but with different stimulus words. Fixation Point Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. On Click, Display Stimulis on Timer, 1 Slide per Second Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit RAKE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit FATE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit TASTE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit BREAK Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit BAIT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: RAKE, FATE, TASTE, BREAK, BAIT
Which word list was harder to remember? List 1: The words are not similar in sound. List 2: The words are similar in sound. List 2 is harder to remember. This is the phonological similarity effect. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Theoretical Analysis of the Phonological Similarity Effect

Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
Compare: List 1: EASE GONE SING TOP CRISP MINT DOOR List 2: RAKE FATE TASTE BREAK BAIT RATE FADE Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for similar-sounding words than for dissimilar sounding words. What does this show about working memory? Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Interpretation of Phonological Similarity Effect
Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for similar-sounding words than for dissimilar sounding words. What does this show about working memory? Basic Assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words. Similar-sounding words are more confusable in a sound-based rehearsal. Memory span for similar-sounding words should be smaller if retention is based on rehearsal in the PL. The predicted smaller memory span for lists of similar-sounding words is confirmed (even if the stimuli are presented visually!). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15 Repeat: Evidence for the Existence of a Phonological Loop

Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words. Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G (harder) Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q (easier) Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words than for lists of long words. Articulatory suppression experiments Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture) Phonological similarity effect was explained in lec04-4.p355.spr15.pptm. Demo of the Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Next: Demo of Word Length Effect
Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for list of long words than for lists of short words. "Long" means multisyllabic. We already did some trials with short words. Next: Memory span trial with long words. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Fixation Point for Demo

Word Span with 5 Words: How Hard is This?
* Note to Self: The following slides advance automatically on a timer, i.e., don't advance the slides manually. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 On Click, Display Stimulus on a Timer, 1 Slide per Second

Digit HABITUALLY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit NEUROTOXIN Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit ANTICIPATION Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit DECIDUOUS Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Digit SAXOPHONE Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Were the Words? Correct Answer: HABITUALLY, NEUROTOXIN, ANTICIPATION, DECIDUOUS, SAXOPHONE Which word list was harder to remember? First list: Short dissimilar sounding words Third list: Long dissimilar sounding words . Theoretical Analysis of the Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Interpretation of Word Length Effect
Word length effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of long words than for lists of short words. What does this show about working memory? Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in STM is by rehearsing the sound of words. Prediction: Since longer words take longer to rehearse, it takes longer to complete the list and return to each word in the list. Therefore we are more likely to forget words from a list of N long words than to forget words from a list of length N short words. Thus, memory span should be smaller for longer words. Prediction is confirmed. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Word Length Effect & Digit Span: Chinese, Welsh, & English - END

Word Length Effect & Digit Span
England How long does it take to pronounce the digits, 1, 2, 3, ...., in various languages? Welsh > English > Chinese What is digit memory span for speakers of various languages? Welsh < English < Chinese Interpretation: Everybody has the same basic STM capacity. Chinese speakers can rehearse digits faster than English speakers. Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task. English speakers can rehearse digits faster than Welsh speakers. Therefore they can retain more digits on the average in a Digit Span task. Wales Finding for Welsh speakers was originally noticed by: Ellis, N. C.; Hennelly, R. A. (February 1980). "A bilingual word-length effect: Implications for intelligence testing and the relative ease of mental calculation in Welsh and English". British Journal of Psychology 71 (1): 43–51. They noticed that Welsh children did worse than English speaking children on a digit span portion of the Wechsler IQ test. They investigated the reasons for this; they found that the word length effect was the probable cause. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to List of Evidence for PL: Next Is Articulatory Suppression

Evidence for the Hypothesis: PL Is Part of WM
Phonological similarity effect: Memory span is smaller for lists of similar-sounding words than for lists of dissimilar-sounding words. Example 1: Remember the list, D B C T P G (harder) Example 2: Remember the list, K F Y L R Q (easier) Word length effect: Memory span is greater for lists of short words than for lists of long words. Articulatory suppression experiments Neuropsychological evidence (later - not in this lecture) Phonological similarity effect was explained in lec04-4.p355.spr15.pptm. Articulatory Suppression Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What Is Articulatory Suppression?
Articulatory Suppression: Have subject speak an irrelevant sound, e.g., "the, the, the, the, ....", while performing a memory task. Purpose of articulatory suppression: Prevent use of PL while performing the memory task. The conflicting task ("the, the, the, ...") prevents use of PL. Prediction: Articulatory suppression should reduce or eliminate the phonological similarity effect and the word length effect because .... articulatory suppression prevents use of PL while performing the memory task, and ... phonological similarity effect and word length effect result from speech-based representations in PL whose use is blocked by articulatory suppression. Impact of Articulatory Suppression on Word Length Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Word Length Effect & Articulatory Suppression
List 1: (long words) helicopter, transformation, synergy, counterpoint, .... List 2: (short words) ant, top, ear, dog, red, ..... Condition 1A: Subjects read List 1, then try to remember it. Condition 2A: Subjects read List 2, then try to remember it. Condition 1B: Subjects read List 1 while saying "the, the, the, the, ...." Then they try to remember it. Condition 2B: Subjects read List 2 while saying "the, the, the, the, ...." Then they try to remember it. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Comment re Articulatory Suppression & Phonological Similarity Effect

Articulatory Suppression Reduces the Word Length Effect
Normal Word Length Effect Articulatory Suppression Cond 1A vs 2A Cond 1B vs 2B book dog neurotoxin mendacious Results for Conditions 1A and 2A were not shown graphically in the Goldstein textbook. Results for Conditions 1B and 2B are shown in Figure 5.13. Conditions 1A and 2A: Normal word length effect was found. Conditions 2A and 2B (with articulatory suppression): Lists of short or long words remember about equally. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Interpretation of This Result

Articulatory Suppression Reduces the Word Length Effect
Normal Word Length Effect Articulatory Suppression Cond 1A vs 2A Cond 1B vs 2B book dog neurotoxin mendacious Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal of word sounds (perhaps the subject rehearses the word images). So word length no longer has as much effect. Comment re Articulatory Suppression & Phonological Similarity Effect Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Articulatory Suppression & the Phonological Similarity Effect
Articulatory suppression also reduces the phonological similarity effect. (Results shown in a later lecture and in the textbook.) These results support the existence of PL and the importance of verbal rehearsal in PL. Summary re PL Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Summary re Phonological Loop (PL)
Basic assumption of PL: One way that people maintain information in a short-term memory store is by rehearsing the sound of words. This assumption predicts that ... ... similar sounding words should be more easily confused in PL (phonological similarity effect) ... longer words should be harder to maintain in PL (word length effect). ... preventing people from verbal rehearsal should eliminate these effects (articulatory suppression). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Diagram of Baddeley-Hitch WM Model

Next Phonological Loop (PL) Short-term storage Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Short-term storage of visual & spatial information Manipulation of visual images and spatial information. Next Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. 3. Central Executive Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL or VSP, and between these components and long-term memory (LTM). ## Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Next: Brandimonte's Mental Subtraction Task
Results for the mental subtraction task support two hypotheses: There exists a memory storage system based on storage of visual information. (Will be called the "visuospatial sketchpad" or VSP) Articulatory suppression prevents rehearsal in PL, thereby forcing the subject to maintain information in VSP. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Description of the Mental Subtraction Task

Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
Brandimonte, M. A., Hitch, G. J., & Bishop, D. V. M. (1992). Influence of short-term memory codes on visual image processing: Evidence from image transformation tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 18, The mental subtraction task is not discussed in the Goldstein textbook. Sample stimuli, A and A' First, the subject sees A. Next A disappears and the subject sees A'. Mental Subtraction Task: “Mentally subtract" the second stimulus from the first; then name the object that remains. * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with “Remainder” Image After Subtraction

Brandimonte: Mental Subtraction Task
Remainder after mental subtraction Subject is not shown this image. Sample stimuli, A and A' First, the subject sees A. Next A disappears and the subject sees A'. Next A’ disappears and the subject must do the mental subtraction. Mental Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the second stimulus A’ from the first stimulus A, and name the object that remains: e.g., Remainder = Ice Cream Cones. * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Instructions for a Sample Trial in the Mental Subtraction Experiment

Sample Experiment: Mental Subtraction
Next you will see an image. After this image is removed, you will see a second image. Mentally subtract the second image from the first image, and name the image that remains after the subtraction. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Image 1 of the Mental Subtraction Example

Example: Memorize This Image
Image B Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Image to be Subtracted from this Image

Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
Image B' Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Name the Image that Results from Subtraction

Subtract This Image from the Preceding Image
Name the image that results from mentally subtracting Image B’ from Image B. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Name the Image that Results from Subtraction

Name the Image that Results From Subtracting Image B' from Image B?
Result of Subtracting Image B' from Image B (This image would not be shown to a subject) Possible answer: A fish Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary: Mental Subtraction Experiment

Summary: Mental "Subtraction" Task
X Subtraction Task: The subject must mentally "subtract" the second stimulus from the first, and name the object that remains. Possible answer for A and A' on Left: Ice cream cones. Possible answer for B and B' on Right: Fish Important to note that if the subject names the first image, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtracting the second image. Also, note that subjects were not instructed to name the first image. (Naming the first image happens automatically; this is a mental habit.) * Important to note that if the subject names the first image, A or B, then it is harder to access a name for the image that remains after subtraction, X or Y, respectively. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Combine with Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression

Combine Mental Subtraction with Articulatory Suppression
1 2 Condition 1: Subject does the mental subtraction task. Condition 2: Subject says "la, la, la, la, ...." while doing the mental subtraction task. Finding: Subjects perform BETTER in Condition 2 than in Condition Why? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment

Interpretation of Mental Subtraction Experiment
The stimuli were designed so that subjects could name the object before "subtracting" the second image. E.g., with stimulus 1, a subject might think "headphones". If a subject silently says "headphones" while looking at the left part of stimulus 1, it is harder to see ice cream cones in the image that results from mental subtraction. Saying "la, la, la, la, ...." suppressed the tendency to name the initial stimulus, so the subject relies only on the visual image in VSP. This makes the subtraction task easier. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary re Mental Subtraction - END

Summary re Mental Subtraction
Assumption: People can maintain a visual/spatial representation of information by actively processing it in VSP. Hypothesis: Suppression of PL can improve processing on tasks if ... ... people are in the habit of naming the image (recoding initial image into the PL), but ..... .... the task is actually performed more easily in VSP alone. Result: Articulatory suppression does improve performance on the mental subtraction task. This result is hard to explain if STM is a single storage area without separate PL & VSP. The result supports the WM model that assumes there are separate PL & VSP memory storage mechanisms. END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Brook's Image Scanning Experiment & Neuropsychological Evidence for Spatial Rehearsal

Outline Brandimonte's Mental Subtraction Experiment Mental Subtraction + Articulatory Suppression Brook's Image Scanning Experiment: Interference between VSP & PL Neuropsychological evidence for spatial rehearsal in the VSP Similarities and differences between PL and VSP Done! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr ‘18 Purpose of Brook's Image Scanning Experiment

Next: Brook’s Image Scanning Experiment
Brooks, L. R. (1968). Spatial and verbal components of the act of recall. Canadian Journal of Psychology, 22, Purpose #1: To show that there are 2 different short-term stores: VSP and PL Purpose #2: To show that ... Performing two different tasks in VSP interfere with each other. Performing two different tasks in PL interfere with each other. Performing one task in VSP and a different task in PL does not cause as much interference Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Image Scanning Experiment

Image Scanning (Brooks)
Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types * There was actually a third response type, “tapping”, but it will not be discussed here – it turned out not to be very informative. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Point Out that Goldstein Textbook Omits the Sentence Stimuli

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Remark that Goldstein Omits Sentence Stimuli

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Types Goldstein's discussion of this study omits the Sentence stimuli. Only the diagram stimuli are discussed in the textbook. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response

Experiment has 4 conditions. 2 types of stimulus: Diagrams or Sentences 2 types of responses: Pointing or Vocal Response* Dependent variable = time to perform a task Next: Explain the different stimulus types and response modes Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Next Slide Stimulus Types Explain Diagram Stimulus x Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Vocal Response Memorize the figure. Then it is removed. Start your scan at the star and (mentally) move clockwise around the figure. Say "OUT" when you reach an outside corner.. Say "IN" when you reach an inside corner. Correct response: out, out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 2 x 2 Exp Design: Identify Combination of Diagram Stim & Pointing Resp

Image Scanning (cont.) Next: Diagrammatic stimulus combined with pointing response: Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Previous Slide Next Slide Condition: Diagram Stimulus with Pointing Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Image Scanning (Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Memorize the figure. Then it is removed. Same as before Start your scan at the * and (mentally) move clockwise around the figure. Same as before. Point to "Out" when you reach an outside corner. Point to "In" when you reach an inside corner.. Correct response: (See diagram) out, out, in, in, out, out, in, out, out, out Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) Stimulus * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Transition to Next Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Image Scanning (cont.) Explain sentence stimulus combined with vocal response: Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Next Slide Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Sentence Stimulus A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Memorize the sentence. Then it is removed. Now work from the beginning to the end of the sentence. Say "yes" each time you encounter a noun; say "no" when you encounter a word that is not a noun. Correct response: Dependent variable: Response time (time to complete the task) no, yes, no, yes, no, no, no, no, no, yes Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Transition to Condition with Sentence Stimulus & Pointing Response

Image Scanning (cont.) Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Vocal Response Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Stimulus Type Next Slide Sentence Stimulus x Pointing Response Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Image Scanning (Lee Brooks, cont.)
Condition: Sentence Stimulus & Pointing Response Memorize the sentence. Then it is removed. Work from the beginning to the end of the sentence. Point to "yes" each time you encounter a noun; say "no" when you encounter a word that is not a noun.. Correct response: no, yes, no, yes, no, no, no, no, no, yes Sentence Stimulus: A bird in hand is worth two in the bush. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Image Scanning Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Slower Faster Faster Slower Same Slide: Why is Pointing Slower than Vocal For Diagrams & Opposite for Sentences? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Results: Image Scanning (Lee Brooks)
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Why is diagram/pointing slower than diagram/vocal? Why is sentence/vocal slower than sentence/pointing? Slower Faster Faster Slower Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Discussion of Results

Why is Diagram/Pointing Slower than Diagram/Vocal?
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Diagram/Pointing: The stimulus and response compete for a common cognitive resource, representation in VSP. Information processing bottleneck causes slower response. Diagram/Vocal: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive resources. No bottleneck. Slower Faster Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why is sentence/vocal slower than sentence/pointing?

Why is Sentence/Vocal Slower than Sentence/Pointing?
Stimulus Type Response Mode Pointing Vocal Diagrams Sentences Sentence/Vocal: Again, stimulus and response compete for a common cognitive resource, representation in PL. Information processing bottleneck causes slower response. Sentence/Pointing: Stimulus & response use separate cognitive resources. No bottleneck. Faster Slower Brook’s Image Scanning Experiment Supports Existence of Visuospatial Component to WM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Brooks' experiment supports the existence of a visuospatial sketch pad (VSP) because ....
If there were only one STM store (not separate PL & VSP), then the effect of the pointing response would be the same in the visuospatial task and the verbal task. Similarly for the effect of the verbal response. WM model assumes multiple memory stores – this lets WM predict conflicts between similar mental codes. The preceding experiment illustrates a basic principle: A response in one modality (verbal or spatial) will interfere more with a memory representation in the same modality than with a memory representation in a different modality. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Comment re the Response Sheet for the Pointing Response

Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet.
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Stimulus Response sheet as displayed in Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139) * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Comment that the Response Sheet on Right is Correct

Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet.
Response Sheet for the Pointing Response in Brooks' Image Scanning Experiment Condition: Diagrammatic Stimulus & Pointing Response Stimulus Response sheet as displayed in Goldstein Table 5.2 (p. 139) * Goldstein textbook shows the words "In" and "Out" lined up in straight columns, but the actual experimental task had irregular columns as shown on this slide. * Irregular columns increase the load on spatial working memory; straight columns would not require as much attention to spatial layout. The actual response sheet looked more like this. Why use the irregular display as on the right? Respond by pointing to letters on this sheet. Spatial Rehearsal in Visual Working Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Spatial Rehearsal in Working Memory – What Is It?
Spatial Rehearsal – maintaining information about a location in working memory Terminology PFC Prefrontal Cortex (the front of the frontal lobe of the brain) DLPFC Dorsolateral Prefrontal Cortex (along the upper outside of the PFC) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Delayed-Match-To-Sample (Monkey Study)

Delayed-Match-To-Sample Paradigm
(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward Monkey sees where food is located. 10 second delay without visual input. Monkey reaches for food (or makes a mistake and reaches in the wrong place). Goldstein refers to this experimental task as the "delayed response task." See Figure 5.23, p. 143. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Display – Single Cell Recordings Find Neural Correlates of (a), (b) & (c)

(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward These results indicate importance of frontal lobes in maintaining spatial location information in VSP. Single-cell recording in monkey PFC shows a correlation between neural activity & the three stages of this task. Some neurons become active during the initial placement of the food. Some neuron become active only during the delay period (spatial rehearsal). Some neurons become active only when the response is made. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Display – Monkeys with PFC Lesions Cannot Do This Task

(a) Cue (b) Delay (c) Reward Right Wrong These results indicate importance of frontal lobes in maintaining spatial location information in VSP. Monkeys with frontal lesions cannot do this task. Human infants cannot do task until about 12 months old. Multiple Location / Eye Movement Version of Delayed Response Task Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Monkey Performance on Delayed Eye-Movement Task
Same idea as the delayed-match-to-sample task (preceding slide), except that there are multiple locations to remember, and the response is an eye movement. See Goldstein, Figure 5.24 (p. 144). The monkey's task is to see the target, wait until a response is permitted, and then move his eyes to the target position. He gets rewarded with a squirt of apple juice. + Target Stimulus Eye Movement Response Delay Period + + Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Single-Cell Recordings When Perceiving the Cue; Maintaining Attention; Responding

These results show that scientist has identified a neurons that are specific to spatial rehearsal. Note that the neuron is only active while the monkey is rehearsing a specific spatial location, not for other spatial locations. Funahashi, S., Bruce, C. J., & Goldman-Rakic, P. S. (1993). Dorsolateral prefrontal lesions and oculomotor delayed- response performance: Evidence for mnemonic "scotomas." Journal of Neuroscience, 13, Neurons in DLPFC show sustained activity during delay period that is selective of the particular location to be remembered. Errors occur when this sustained activity fails to initiate or decays before end of delay period. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Specific Lesions Cause Location-Specific Inability to Memory Loss

error Lesion Perception for these locations is not impaired. Memory for other locations is not impaired. This shows that a specific brain injury can prevent a monkey from thinking about a location. Lesions introduced into spatial memory areas cause location-specific inability to retain spatial information during the delay period. (Mnemonic scotoma). Perception for these locations is not impaired, i.e., this is not a blind spot. Memory for other locations is not impaired. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Neural Mind Reading

Tuesday, April 24, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Neural Mind of Perceptual Processing
Neural Mind Reading - guessing what someone was thinking from the neural response. Kamitani, Y., & Tong, F. (2005). Decoding the visual and subjective contents of the human brain. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 679–685. Neural mind reading of perceptual processing: fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is viewing On each trial, the subject views the pattern on left or the pattern on the right: Researcher tries to guess the stimulus based on fMRI image taken while subject views the stimulus. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 75% - 100% depending on the stimulus pair. Guessing rate would be 50%. Perception study: Subject sees a striped disk. Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. OR Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP

Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465. On each trial, the subject views a sequence of screens. Researcher tries to guess the image held in WM based on fMRI image taken while subject retains the memory of the cued stimulus. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 80% (average). fMRI successfully detected VSP rehearsal of the target image. 11 seconds 2 Target 1 Target 2 Remember This Target fMRI Recording Test Stimulus Is Test Stimulus Clockwise or Counterclockwise? Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk. Subject's task is to say whether the test stimulus (striped disk) is rotated clockwise or counterclockwise relative to the remembered target (either 1 or 2 depending on the memory cue). Note that every trial has the same stimuli up until the cue for the target (1 or 2). The fMRI differences are not caused by stimulus differences. Harrison and Tong had previously identified orientation specific voxels (tiny rectalinear volumes in the brain). Researchers used activity in visual cortex to predict orientation of the target that was being retained during the 11 second retention period. 2 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Graph Showing Brain Activity in Visual Cortex While Retaining Orientation Info

fMRI Measure of Brain Activity During Stimulus Trial
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465. The graph (b) shows brain activity during the retention period (and after the retention period - not relevant to our current topic). BOLD contrast is strong in targeted areas of visual cortex during the retention period (11 seconds), even though there is no visual stimulus. The fact that the activity was in the visual cortex supports interpretation that what we are observing is spatial rehearsal. Stimulus Sequence Brain Activity in Visual Cortex During 11 Second Retention Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary: Neuropsych Evidence for WM Components

Neuropsychological Evidence for WM Components
There is a short-term memory store (VSP) that is specific for visual imagery and spatial representations. Evidence for “spatial rehearsal” in VSP Single-cell recordings in monkey Imaging studies of phonological loop: No one brain locus shows increased activity during rehearsal. Multiple brain areas that are associated with language show increased activity. Evidence from cognitive impairments Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Table Comparing PL to VSP - Overview of Layout

Summary: Comparison Between PL & VSP
Phonological Loop Common Characteristics Differences Visuospatial Sketchpad Common Characteristics Differences Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '13 Comparison of PL & VSP - END

Phonological Loop Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (verbal rehearsal) Information is highly accessible Multiple verbal tasks interfere with each other. PL processes linguistic information; Visuospatial Sketchpad Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (manipulation of mental imagery) Information is highly accessible Multiple visual tasks interfere with each other. VSP processes visual imagery and spatial information. Verbal Task + Visual Task produces less interference than Verbal Task + Verbal Task or Visual Task + Visual Task Different areas of the brain show enhanced activity during verbal and visual/spatial rehearsal. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END

First: The Central Executive Then: Intro to Long-Term Memory

Outline Neuropsychological evidence for spatial rehearsal in the VSP
Summary: Similarities and differences between PL and VSP Introduction to long-term memory Components of long-term memory HM - a man with a memorable memory impairment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition of Neural Mind Reading

Neural Mind Reading Neural Mind Reading - guessing what someone was thinking from the neural response. Neural mind reading of perceptual processing: Using brain imaging (fMRI) to guess which pattern a subject is viewing at a particular time. Neural mind reading of spatial working memory: Using brain imaging (fMRI) to guess which pattern a subject was maintaining in visual working memory (VSP), even though the visual stimulus has been removed. * Neural mind reading of spatial working memory is evidence that spatial working memory (VSP) exists as a separate component from the phonological loop (PL). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Neural Mind Reading of Perceptual Processes

Neural Mind Reading of Perceptual Processing
Kamitani, Y., & Tong, F. (2005). Decoding the visual and subjective contents of the human brain. Nature Neuroscience, 8, 679–685. fMRI used to guess which pattern a subject is viewing On each trial, the subject views the pattern on left or the pattern on the right: Researcher tries to guess the stimulus based on fMRI image taken while subject views the stimulus. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 75% - 100% depending on the stimulus pair. Guessing rate would be 50%. OR Perception study: Subject sees a striped disk. Experimenter who does not know which disk the subject was looking at has to predict the orientation of the stripes based on an fMRI image of the subject's visual cortex. The analysis of the fMRI image is based not merely on a map of brain activation, but on knowledge established in previous studies as to which specific voxels in visual cortex are sensitive to orientation information in stimuli like the one displayed on the slide. “voxel” = unit of volume in fMRI brain image. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP

Neural Mind Reading of Rehearsal in VSP
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465. On each trial, the subject views a sequence of screens. Researcher tries to guess the image held in WM based on fMRI image taken while subject retains the memory of the cued stimulus. Psychologists achieve accuracy of 80% (average). fMRI successfully detected VSP rehearsal of the target image. 11 seconds 2 Target 1 Target 2 Remember This Target fMRI Recording Test Stimulus Is Test Stimulus Clockwise or Counterclockwise? Visual working memory study: Subject sees both striped disks. The disks disappears. The subject is given a cue, 1 or 2, that tells him which disk to hold in memory. After an 11 second delay, the subject is shown a new striped disk. Subject's task is to say whether the test stimulus (striped disk) is rotated clockwise or counterclockwise relative to the remembered target (either 1 or 2 depending on the memory cue). Note that every trial has the same stimuli up until the cue for the target (1 or 2). The fMRI differences are not caused by stimulus differences. Harrison and Tong had previously identified orientation specific voxels (tiny rectalinear volumes in the brain). Researchers used activity in visual cortex to predict orientation of the target that was being retained during the 11 second retention period. 2 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Graph Showing Brain Activity in Visual Cortex While Retaining Orientation Info

fMRI Measure of Brain Activity During Stimulus Trial
Harrison, S. A., & Tong, F. (2009). Decoding reveals the contents of visual working memory in early visual areas. Nature, 458, 462–465. The graph (b) shows brain activity during the retention period (and after the retention period - not relevant to our current topic). BOLD contrast is strong in targeted areas of visual cortex during the retention period (11 seconds), even though there is no visual stimulus. The fact that the activity was in the visual cortex supports interpretation that what we are observing is spatial rehearsal. Stimulus Sequence Brain Activity in Visual Cortex During 11 Second Retention Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary: Neuropsych Evidence for WM Components

Neuropsychological Evidence for WM Components
There is a short-term memory store (VSP) that is specific for visual imagery and spatial representations. Evidence for “spatial rehearsal” in VSP Single-cell recordings in monkey Imaging studies of phonological loop: No one brain locus shows increased activity during rehearsal. Multiple brain areas that are associated with language show increased activity. Evidence from cognitive impairments * Comment re neural mind reading and a totalitarian state. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Table Comparing PL to VSP - Overview of Layout

Phonological Loop Common Characteristics Differences Visuospatial Sketchpad Common Characteristics Differences Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '13 Comparison of PL & VSP - END

Phonological Loop Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (verbal rehearsal) Information is highly accessible Multiple verbal tasks interfere with each other. PL processes linguistic information; Visuospatial Sketchpad Limited capacity Information is retained by an active process (manipulation of mental imagery) Information is highly accessible Multiple visual tasks interfere with each other. VSP processes visual imagery and spatial information. Verbal Task + Visual Task produces less interference than Verbal Task + Verbal Task or Visual Task + Visual Task Different areas of the brain show enhanced activity during verbal and visual/spatial rehearsal. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Working Memory Model: Focus Next on Central Executive

Phonological Loop (PL) Short-term storage Rehearsal Manipulation of verbal information Visuospatial Sketch Pad (VSP) Short-term storage of visual & spatial information Manipulation of visual images and spatial information. Basic Idea: At least two short-term memory stores, audition (language), visual/spatial. What justifies the hypothesis that there are separate memory stores? What justifies the assumption of an executive process. 3. Central Executive Directs activity within the PL or VSP. Coordinates activity between PL and VSP, and long-term memory (LTM). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Arguments for a Central Executive

Arguments for a Central Executive
Conceptual Argument: The brain somehow controls activity in WM. Let's give this controlling mental function a name: The Central Executive. Baddeley has called the central executive the "attention controller." Baddeley has also called the theory of the central executive "a ragbag." Evidence from clinical neuropsychology: A variety of pathologies have been found that relate to the functions of the central executive. These pathologies are often related to injury to the frontal lobe of the brain. Especially, to the prefrontal cortex. Frontal lobe damage Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Stroop Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome

Incompatible Condition
Stroop Task Name the color of the font in which the word is printed. Ignore the meaning of the word. Compatible Condition BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc Incompatible Condition BLUE GREEN RED BLACK GREEN RED etc Obviously, the incompatible condition is harder (slower). What does this have to do with executive processes? Frontal lobe damage – much slower in the incompatible condition. Why? – Stroop task requires self-control. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Wisconsin Card Sort Task & Frontal Lobe Syndrome

Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Match new card to the “correct” old card. Subject guesses which old car matches the new card. Subject gets feedback, "correct" or "incorrect." Subject gradually learns the rule for "correct" response. Criterion for “correct” old card keeps changing over blocks of trials. Old Cards New Card Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape. Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Patients with Frontal Lobe Damage Have Difficulty when the Criterion Changes

Wisconsin Card Sort Task
Normal performance: Subjects can learn to switch the criterion for a new block of trials. Frontal lobe damage – normal performance on first block of trials, but they have great difficulty when the experimenter changes the rule. Block 1: “Correct” responses based on matching shape. Block 2: “Correct” responses based on matching color. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Self-Control & Working Memory

Self Control & Working Memory (WM)
Hypothesis: WM & central executive monitors current plans & goals. WM monitors adherence to these plans and goals. If a task places extra load on WM, then adherence to plans and goals will suffer. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information

fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Remember Faces Just Watch This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neuroscience, 8, Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal aging. Nature Neuroscience, 8, fMRI measurement of brain activity in left parahippocampal/lingual gyrus (overlaps the parahippocampal place area/PPA). Specialized for place perception. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition of Face-Relevant & Passive Viewing Conditions

Remember Faces Just Watch This experiment: Gazzaley, A., Cooney, J. W., Rissman, J., & D'Esposito, M. (2005). Top-down suppression deficit underlies working memory impairment in normal againg. Nature Neuroscience, 8, Face Relevant Condition: Remember faces; ignore scenes. Later tested for recognition of a face. Passive Condition: Simply view the stimuli. Later tested on whether the arrow points left or right. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition of Good Suppressors & Poor Suppressors

Lower Higher Lower Higher Remember Faces Just Watch Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Same Slide - Add Definition of Poor Suppressors Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Higher Lower Higher Lower Remember Faces Just Watch Good Suppressors – People whose brain activity was less when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Poor Suppressors – People whose brain activity was greater when the scene was irrelevant than when scene was passively viewed. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Scene Stimuli

Results of fMRI Study of Inhibition of Irrelevant Information
Good suppressors are better at recognizing faces. Proposed explanation: Good suppressors have better central executive function; they are better at inhibiting irrelevant information. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary re Frontal Lobe Syndrome & Central Executive

Frontal Lobe Damage & Impaired Functioning of the Central Executive
Central executive controls attention to relevant information and responses.Inhibits irrelevant information and responses. Frontal lobe damage leads to difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information and responses. Stroop task, Wisconsin card sort task, face recognition with irrelevant scenes: To respond correctly, you need to inhibit a response. People with frontal lobe damage have difficulty inhibiting tempting wrong responses. People differ in how effective they are at inhibiting irrelevant information. People who are better at inhibiting irrelevant information are better at performing cognitive tasks that depend on the relevant stimuli. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Baddeley’s List of Central Executive Functions

Baddeley’s List of Functions of the Central Executive
Only partially understood. Very active area of current research. Alan Baddeley – chief developer of working memory theory (Baddeley calls the theory of the central executive a "ragbag") Controlling and allocating attention. Coordinating current activity of working memory with goals. Task switching. Multi-tasking. Selection and launching of responses. Inhibiting associated but inappropriate responses. Controlling the interface between STM and LTM, especially LTM search & retrieval. Chunking Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Introduction to Long-Term Memory

Introduction to Long-Term Memory

Outline Finish discussion of the central executive (part of working memory) Introduction to long-term memory HM - a patient with a famous memory impairment What were his memory problems? Why did he display a specific pattern of memory abilities and disabilities? Multi-component model of long-term memory How do we know that short-term memory and long-term memory are based on different memory systems? Episodic memory versus semantic memory: How are they different? Implicit memory - how does it different from explicit (a.k.a. declarative) memory? Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary: Frontal Lobe Damage & Functions of the Central Executive

Frontal Lobe Damage & Impaired Functioning of the Central Executive
Central executive controls attention to relevant information and responses. Inhibits irrelevant information and responses. Frontal lobe damage leads to difficulty inhibiting irrelevant information and responses. Stroop task, Wisconsin card sort task, face recognition with irrelevant scenes: To respond correctly, you need to inhibit a response. People with frontal lobe damage have difficulty inhibiting tempting but mistaken responses. People differ in how effective they are at inhibiting irrelevant information. People who are better at inhibiting irrelevant information are better at performing cognitive tasks that require focusing on relevant stimuli. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Baddeley’s List of Central Executive Functions

Baddeley’s List of Functions of the Central Executive
Only partially understood. Very active area of current research. Alan Baddeley – chief developer of working memory theory (Baddeley calls the theory of the central executive a "ragbag") Controlling and allocating attention. Coordinating current activity of working memory with goals. Task switching. Multi-tasking. Selection and launching of responses. Inhibiting associated but inappropriate responses. Controlling the interface between STM and LTM, especially LTM search & retrieval. Chunking Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Introduction to Long-Term Memory

Outline - Introduction to Long-Term Memory
Reminder: Distinction between STM / WM and LTM Different types of long-term memory Explicit versus implicit memory (declarative vs non-declarative memory) Episodic versus semantic memory Procedural memory Associative memory HM – a famous clinical case What was HM's main memory problem? Evidence for distinction between STM & LTM Evidence for distinction between episodic and semantic memory Evidence for distinction between explicit memory and implicit memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Picture Showing the STM/LTM Distinction

Figure 6.1: Example of the STM/LTM Distinction
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Modal Memory Model – Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation

Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation This diagram may be misleading because it suggests that information must pass through STM to get to LTM. Not everyone agrees with this assumption. Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information. Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM Consolidation - creating a strong LTM by repeatedly retrieving and manipulating an LTM; and by associating it with other memories. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 List of Functions That Are Included in LTM

LTM Includes ..... Important information about the self and events in the world, but also, ... Trivial information about what has happened in the recent past, “Semantic” knowledge, e.g., what is an apple, a pencil; which is bigger, a mouse or a moose; etc. How to do things: Tie your shoes, drive a car, dial a phone number, cook a meal, .... Learned associations that are not explicit, e.g., the atmosphere of a dentist’s office makes you feel apprehensive. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing the Major Components of the LTM System

Different Types of Long-Term Memory
Figure Different Types of Long-Term Memory Declarative memory (explicit memory) – facts, knowledge, images Non-declarative memory (implicit memory) – non-conscious memory that is expressed through change in behavior; it doesn’t necessarily include conscious recollection. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Intro to HM

HM – A Famous Clinical Case
HM – initials of a man See links to his biography on the Psych 355 website. Intractable epilepsy. August 25, 1953: Medial temporal lobes (left and right) were surgically resectioned to treat his epilepsy. Removal of the hippocampus. Following surgery, HM had much milder symptoms of epilepsy, but ... ... he was found to have severe problems with memory. . Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Where is the Hippocampus?

Where is the Hippocampus?
HM underwent bilateral removal of much of the hippocampus, amygdala and surrounding medial temporal cortices. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Amygdala Hippocampus Schematic head facing up. Hippocampi are in red. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 HM’s Memory Problem

HM’s Memory Post-Surgery
HM could carry on a conversation, understand current situations. Severely impaired memory for any events occurring after brain injury. (Severe anterograde amnesia) Some impaired memory for events occurring before injury. (Some retrograde amnesia) Could learn new skills like sewing. Could learn some new semantic information, e.g., his brain surgery was in 1953, but he learned that there was a president named Kennedy who was assassinated. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing Multiple Memory Systems

Episodic & Semantic Memory
HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Memory Terminology – Including Types of Amnesia

More Memory Terminology
Discussed on Earlier Slide Explicit memory (declarative memory) Episodic memory - memory for personal experiences Semantic memory - memory for facts Implicit memory (non-declarative memory) Priming – exposure to one stimulus can affect ability to perform a cognitive task. Procedural memory - memory for how to do things, e.g., how to type at a computer. Associative and non-associative learning Amnesia Anterograde – amnesia for events occurring after brain injury. Retrograde - amnesia for events occurring before brain injury. Back to HM’s Memory Problems Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

HM's Memory Problems Anterograde amnesia – very severe; he could not form new permanent episodic memories. Retrograde amnesia – very severe for preceding 4 days; some impairment up to 11 year preceding. Retrograde amnesia was temporally graded, i.e., less amnesia for events that were farther in the past Declarative memory – severely impaired Episodic memory – very severe Semantic memory – severe but he could still learn some new general facts. Procedural memory – relatively intact HM learned to sew. HM learned to draw mirror images. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing that HM’s Memory Problem Pertains to Encoding

HM's Explicit Memory Problem
Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes (Remember that this diagram is an over-simplification) HM's worst problem was encoding from STM (WM) to LTM. Impaired transfer from STM to LTM. STM (WM) was still functioning because he could understand the current situation. Note: This diagram omits the role of the hippocampus in consolidation (probably HM had difficulty with consolidation as well as encoding). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram Showing Multiple Memory Systems

Next: How do we know that STM & LTM involve different brain mechanisms? HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Serial Position Curve Provides Evidence for STM / LTM Distinction

How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms?
Evidence from the Serial Position Curve: Subject views list of 20 words, one word at a time. Each word is presented for 2 seconds. After viewing the list, subject attempts to recall as many words as possible. "Serial position" refers to the position of a word in the list, i.e., 1st, 2nd, 3rd, ..., 19th, 20th. Serial Position % Recalled Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve Curve shows the percentage of times a word in each position was recalled correctly. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve

Interpretation of Standard Result for Serial Position Curve
Claims (to be substantiated in subsequent slides) Primacy effect is due to transfer to LTM. Recency effect due to words retained in STM. Standard result for serial position curve is evidence for STM/LTM distinction. Serial Position % Recalled Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve Recency Effect Primacy Effect How to Prove that Primacy is Due to Transfer to LTM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

How to Prove Primacy Effect Is Due to Transfer to LTM?
Rundus (1971) presented words at the rate of 1 word per 5 seconds. 20 words in the list. Subjects were instructed to rehearse words aloud. What Subject Sees What Subject Says car car, car, car, ... stone car, stone, car, stone, car, ... top car, stone, top, car, stone, top, ... This study has 2 dependent variables: Frequency of recall for words in each position Number of rehearsals for words in each position Subjects were not told which words to rehearse (repeat). They were simply told to repeat whichever words they felt like repeating aloud. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Rundus Experiment

Results for Rundus (1971) Study
Figure 6.4 Effect of Overt Rehearsal % Recalled Serial Position Number of Rehearsals Figure 6.4 to the right: Red solid line: Serial position curve (standard result) Blue dotted line: Number of times a word in each position was rehearsed. Blue dotted line correlates perfectly with the serial position curve (red dotted line) except for the recency effect. This supports claim that primacy effect is due to transfer to LTM. Subjects were not told which words to rehearse (repeat). They were simply told to repeat whichever words they felt like repeating aloud. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 How to Prove that Recency Effect Due to Retention in STM?

How to Prove Recency Effect Is Due to Retention in STM?
Dashed line shows effect of counting backwards by 3’s for 30 seconds after presentation of list. Counting backwards prevents retention of words in STM, so recency effect disappears. This result supports the hypothesis that the recency effect is due to retention of recent words in STM. Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, Figure 6.5 Effect of Counting Backwards % Recalled Glanzer, M., & Cunitz, A. R. (1966). Two storage mechanisms in free recall. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 5, No recency effect Serial Position How We Know that STM & LTM Are Different Mechanisms - Summary Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM.
How Do We Know that STM and LTM Involve Different Brain Mechanisms? (Conclusion) Assumption of separate STM & LTM explains facts about the serial position curve. Neuropsych evidence of double dissociation between STM & LTM. HM & Clive Wearing had normal memory span, e.g., 5-8 digits KF had reduced memory span, e.g., about 2 digits. LTM was ok. STM LTM HM, Clive Wearing OK Impaired K. F. K.F. suffered to parietal lobe in a motorbike accident. He had digit span of 2 (typical digit span is digits). His serial position curve had a reduced recency effect (probably due to reduced use of rehearsal during the memory task). LTM was ok. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Surprise Memory Test Items

Answering Essay Questions
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: Roy Seo 4/27/2018: Section Week 5

Outline Common mistakes when answering an essay question Strategies
Two examples Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Common Mistakes When Answering an Essay Question
Failure to read the question carefully Omitting important points that are central to the scientific logic Response is not clear Failure to clearly articulate main points Failure to organize points and tie them together Inclusion of information not relevant to the question Over reliance on ‘jargon’ and/or failure to define central concepts Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Strategies Read the entire question
Be cognizant of amount of time to answer the question (15 minutes) Identify and outline elements of the question/key points Address all important points Tie points together Limit to what is relevant (extraneous info can obscure main points) Provide necessary background Brief real world examples are useful to illustrate points/clarify concepts Think like a cognitive psychologist! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Think like a cognitive psychologist!
When empirical findings are relevant and/or you are asked to provide/discuss them: Describe experiments & how they support or conflict with a theory Describe important aspects of the task Describe experimental results Describe the interpretation of results What conclusions were reached How do the experimental results support the conclusions Discuss how results exclude alternative accounts of these findings Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Example Question 1 The Brown/Peterson paradigm (see Goldstein p ) is used to measure the duration that information is retained in short-term memory when a subject is prevented from rehearsing the information. Psychologists believe that proactive interference is a major cause of forgetting in the Brown/Peterson paradigm. Define "proactive interference." Then describe the empirical findings that support the claim that forgetting in the Brown/Peterson paradigm is caused by proactive interference. Be sure that your answer is clear about why the empirical findings exclude alternative explanations like (a) subjects get fatigued as they learn more and more lists, or (b) some lists of words are harder to learn than other lists. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Example Question 1 The Brown/Peterson paradigm (see Goldstein p ) is used to measure the duration that information is retained in short-term memory when a subject is prevented from rehearsing the information. Psychologists believe that proactive interference is a major cause of forgetting in the Brown/Peterson paradigm. 1) Define "proactive interference." Then 2) describe the empirical findings that support the claim that forgetting in the Brown/Peterson paradigm is caused by proactive interference. Be sure that your answer is clear about 3) why the empirical findings exclude alternative explanations like (a) subjects get fatigued as they learn more and more lists, or (b) 4) some lists of words are harder to learn than other lists. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Key elements of question
What is proactive interference (PI)? Describe empirical findings supporting PI Results from which experiment support the claim that forgetting in the BP paradigm is caused by PI? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Delay in Seconds Panel (b): Performance on the 1st trial of Brown-Peterson task. Panel (c): Performance on the 3rd trial of Brown-Peterson task. Performance at 18 second delay gets worse as subject performs more memory trials! Same Graph – Hypothesis That Proactive Interference Causes Forgetting Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Simplified Version of Figure 6.6 (p. 157): Wicken's Study of Influence of Proactive Interference on Brown-Peterson Task Fruit Group: Every trial requires subject to remember 3 fruit. Meat Group: Trials 1 – 3 require remembering meat words. Trial 4 requires remembering fruit words. Results of Wicken’s Experiment Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Empirical findings What are the empirical findings? Task description:
What are the relevant experimental design details? What was the experimental manipulation? (hint: subjects are divided into 2 groups – how did the task differ between the two groups?) . Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Empirical findings What are the empirical findings?
Experimental results: How did each group perform? Interpretation of the experimental results: How were the results from each group interpreted with respect to PI? How does PI account for the difference in performance between the groups? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Empirical findings What are the empirical findings?
Ruling out alternative explanations: Fatigue: If the performance difference between the two groups was due to fatigue, what would the expected results be? Some words are harder than others: Which list of words (trial) was critical for the interpretation that PI is the source of forgetting in the PB task? Did this list of words differ between the two group? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Example Question 2 When psychologists try to measure the capacity of short-term memory, they always use stimulus materials that have very little structure. For example, they ask subjects to remember sequences of digits, or sequences of unrelated words, or sequences of unrelated auditory tones. Please write an essay that addresses the following three issues regarding short-term memory: Why do psychologists avoid stimuli that have structural relationships, like meaningful sentences or meaningful photographs, when they try to measure the capacity of short-term memory? What is chunking, and why does the fact that humans are capable of chunking make it difficult to measure the capacity of short-term memory for meaningful material? Why does an expert in a given area appear to have a superior short-term memory for material in that area than a novice in that area? For example, why does a chess expert appear to have a superior short-term memory for meaningful chess positions than a novice chess player? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Key elements of question
Why do psychologists avoid stimuli that have structural relationships when they try to measure the capacity of short-term memory? What is chunking, and why does the fact that humans are capable of chunking make it difficult to measure the capacity of short-term memory for meaningful material? Why does an expert in a given area appear to have a superior short-term memory for material in that area than a novice in that area? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Part 2 What is chunking, and why does the fact that humans are capable of chunking make it difficult to measure the capacity of short-term memory for meaningful material? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Part 1 Why do psychologists avoid stimuli that have structural relationships when they try to measure the capacity of short-term memory? What type of confounds could arise with structured stimuli? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Part 3 Why does an expert in a given area appear to have a superior short- term memory for material in that area than a novice in that area? How did this play out in the experiment with the expert and novice chess players? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr'18

Introduction to Long-Term Memory (continued)

Example (to be discussed later)
ELK SHIP PEAR Later in lecture: Give recall and recognition tests for these words. Use this to illustrate why memory tests are tests of episodic memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Memory Systems – Next: Episodic vs Semantic Memory

Outline Episodic Memory and Semantic Memory (Two Aspects of Explicit Long-Term Memory) Implicit Memory (Priming) What builds strong memories? Why are some memories weaker than others? Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of the Memory Systems

HUMAN MEMORY SHORT-TERM MEMORY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explicit Memory = {Episodic Memory + Semantic Memory}

Explicit Memory, a.k.a., Declarative Memory Episodic memory is memory for the experience of events in one's personal history. Semantic memory is memory for facts, events, and knowledge that is not linked to experience. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Episodic vs Semantic Memory – Some Examples

Episodic versus Semantic Memory – Some Examples
"I remember parking my car this morning." "I remember the big earthquake in 1963." "I remember that wolves are bigger than coyotes." "I remember that Olympia is south of Seattle." "I remember Beth's telling me to be at the meeting on Thursday." “Barack Obama won the 2012 presidential election." Subject in a memory experiment says, "I remember seeing the word, 'watermelon' on the list you showed me." E E S S E maybe E, maybe S maybe both E Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition: Recall Test versus Recognition Test

Recall versus Recognition Tests
Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed a few minutes ago? Write them down. Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed earlier in this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture. CAR PEAR STICK etc. "no" / "new" "yes" / "old" "no" / "new" Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Do These Tests Involve Episodic or Semantic Memory?

Memory Performance on a Memory Test – Episodic or Semantic?
Recall Test: Can you remember the words that I displayed at the beginning of the lecture? Write them down. Recognition Test: Which of these words were displayed at the beginning of this lecture? Write “yes” or “no” depending on whether a word was or was not displayed at the beginning of the lecture. Is your memory performance on these tests an example of episodic memory or semantic memory? Main Point: Recall and recognition tests require episodic memory because they require the subject to remember a specific previous experience (seeing a word in a list that the experimenter displayed before you). Note that semantic memory is needed to answer a question like, What is a ship? Is a pear a fruit? But these were not the questions that were asked in a recall or recognition test. Main Point: Recall and recognition tests require episodic memory because they require the subject to remember a specific previous experience (was this item displayed during an earlier part of this experiment?). Note that it requires semantic memory to answer, e.g., what is a ship? Or is a pear a fruit? But these are not the questions that were asked. You are asked about a particular experience, exposure to some memory items and your memory for this exposure is part of your episodic memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Double Dissociations Btwn Episodic & Semantic Memory

Double Dissociations Between Episodic & Semantic Memory
KC, HM OK Impaired Italian woman (KF) This table is similar to, but not quite identical to Table 6.4, p. 163, in Goldstein 4th ed. Semantic memory intact; episodic memory impaired. Alzheimer's patient with intact semantic memory, and severely impaired episodic memory. Patient KC has injury to hippocampus. Lost his episodic memory, but retains semantic memory. Semantic memory impaired; episodic memory intact KF is a 44 year old Italian woman who had encephalitis. Impaired semantic memory, e.g., could not remember meaning of words on a shopping list; Intact episodic memory, e.g., could remember what she had done Patient KC suffered injury to hippocampus & surrounding structures; due to motorcycle accident at age 30. He cannot remember past experiences, e.g., the experience of hearing that his brother had died, but he retains semantic memory, e.g., he remembers that his brother had died. KF lost ability to remember facts, e.g., she couldn’t recognize famous people, she couldn’t remember the meanings of words on a shopping list or where things were in the store, who is Beethoven, etc. She could still remember experiences, e.g., what she had done during the days, things that had happened in past weeks or months, etc. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 fMRI Evidence for Episodic/Semantic Distinction

How Do We Know that Episodic and Semantic Memory Are Different Memory Systems?
Figure 6.8 Yellow: Subject is recalling experiences (episodic). Blue: Subject is recalling facts (semantic). Neuropsychological (fMRI) evidence for double dissociations between episodic & semantic memory. Pattern of activation is different while recalling episodic & semantic memories. It should be noted that there is overlap between episodic & semantic memories. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Back to Diagram of Memory Systems – Episodic Memory versus Priming

HUMAN MEMORY Next Topic SHORT-TERM MEMORY Previous Topic Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is Priming?

Digression – What is Priming?
Definition: Priming is the facilitation of the response to Stimulus B by prior exposure to a similar Stimulus A. How is priming used in the study of cognitive processes? Priming can be used to measure the degree to which two stimuli, A and B, are psychologically similar. Priming can be used to measure the degree to which two cognitive tasks, X and Y, require overlapping cognitive processes. (Fuller explanation on the following slides.) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Priming in the Word/NonWord Discrimination Task

Priming in the Word/Non-Word Discrimination Task
Example: Word/Non-Word Discrimination Task: Say "Yes" or “No” depending on whether the second stimulus is a word or non-word. Stimulus Correct Response ROCK – BOOK Yes CHAIR – FLARN No DOCTOR – NURSE Yes CHAIR – NURSE Yes 1st Stimulus 2nd Stimulus 200 ms Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat Slide with Added Info

Priming in the Word/Non-Word Discrimination Task
Example: Word/Non-Word Discrimination Task: Say "Yes" or “No” depending on whether the second stimulus is a word or non-word. Stimulus Correct Response ROCK – BOOK Yes CHAIR – FLARN No DOCTOR – NURSE Yes CHAIR – NURSE Yes Fact: The “Yes” to “NURSE” will be faster when "NURSE" follows "DOCTOR" than when “NURSE” follows "CHAIR". The word DOCTOR primes medical beliefs & knowledge and this facilitates the recognition that NURSE is a word. 1st Stimulus 2nd Stimulus 200 ms Faster Slower Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is a Priming Effect?

What Is a Priming Effect?
A priming effect has been observed if the response to Stimulus B is facilitated (made faster or more accurate) by a prior exposure to Stimulus A. Comment: Priming is demonstrated by comparison between conditions where a prime is present or not present. DOCTOR – NURSE faster than PENCIL – NURSE DOG – BARK faster than COD – BARK SING – SONG faster than SHOOT – SONG Widely-Accepted Hypothesis: Priming results from the activation & reactivation of related cognitive networks. Repeat Diagram of Memory Systems with Emphasis on Implicit Memory & Priming Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

HUMAN MEMORY Next Topic SHORT-TERM MEMORY Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Word Fragment Completion Task

Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task
Stage 1: Study List A Study List B apple dog pear moose watermelon antelope Stage 2 Recall List A Recall List B (explicit) some forget "watermelon" some forget "antelope" Stage 3 WFC Task WFC Task (implicit) _ater__lon _ater__lon _nte_ope _nte_ope Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Task: Fill in the blanks to make a word. Goldstein 4th ed. calls this the "word completion task. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Word Fragment Completion Task

Results for WFC Stage 1: Study List A Study List B apple dog pear moose watermelon antelope Stage 2 Recall List A Recall List B (explicit) some forget "watermelon" some forget "antelope" Stage 3 WFC Task WFC Task (implicit) _ater__lon _ater__lon _nte_ope _nte_ope worse better worse better Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Word Fragment Completion Task

Word Fragment Completion (WFC) Summary
WFC performance is better for words that were studied at Stage 1 but forgotten at Stage 2, than for words that were never studied at Stage 1. Subjects have implicit memory for words studied at Stage 1 even if they cannot recall them at Stage 2. WFC is an example of priming: Previous viewing of a word facilitates word fragment completion of the word even though subject did not recall the word This experience primes this cognitive process Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 WFC & Recall in Amnesics & Normal Controls

WFC & Recall for Amnesics & Normal Controls
Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985). Subjects Amnesics (anterograde): Korsakoff patients non-Korsakoff 8 Non-Amnesic Alcoholics 8 Non-Amnesic, Non-Alcoholic Subject groups were similar in age. INPT ALC AMN Non-Amnesic Non-Alcoholics Non-Amnesic Alcoholics Amnesics Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Experimental Procedure & Results

Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985). Subject read lists of words. Subjects rated the words on a list on scale from 1 = “like extremely” to 5 = “dislike extremely”. 2) Recall Trials: Subjects attempted to recall the words. 3) Implicit Memory Trials: Subjects performed WFC with the words. Results: Amnesics do just as well as other groups on implicit memory (WFC) but do much worse on explicit memory (recall). Explicit Memory  Implicit Memory INPT ALC AMN Recall trials and implicit memory trials follow immediately after subjects complete the ratings of liking. perform as well as other groups perform worse than other groups Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Warrington & Weiskrantz: Korsakoff Patients Identify Incomplete Figures

Monday, 30 April, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here

Related Study by Warrington & Weiskrantz (Figures 6.11 & 6.12)
Errors Day of Training Patients lack episodic memory of studying the words, but implicit memory task (WFC) shows that they retain information from the study list. Korsakoff patients were asked to identify incomplete pictures (pictures with parts of the objects erased). Patients were not asked: Have you seen this before? (explicit memory test) Patients were asked: What is it? (implicit memory test) Over three days, the patients improved without remembering previous training or exposure to the stimuli. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explicit & Implicit Memory Have Different Forgetting Curves

Episodic & Implicit Memory Show Different Patterns of Forgetting
1 hour days % Correct Recognition WFC Tulving et al. (1982) studied recognition and WFC among normal subjects. Graph shows that recognition (episodic memory) and WFC (implicit memory) show different patterns of forgetting over time. Episodic memory is lost faster than implicit memory. Bottom Line: Explicit (declarative) memory & implicit memory are based on different memory systems. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Episodic & Implicit Memory Are Not Mutually Exclusive: END

Explicit Memory & Implicit Memory are Not Mutually Exclusive
Many memories can have both explicit and implicit components I remember doing the research for my dissertation in psychology. I remember the time that the house next to my house caught on fire. Implicit components can guide the construction of an explicit (episodic) memory. A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: A woman was attacked in her home shortly after watching a TV show in which a psychologist, David Thompson, was interviewed. Later she identified David Thompson as the attacker (He had an alibi, the interview on the TV show.) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Builds Strong Memories? - OR END HERE?

What Builds Strong Memories?

Outline Implicit memory ≠ Explicit memory What builds strong memories?
Memorization (repetitive rehearsal) is NOT effective. Generating related ideas strengthens memory. Generating related mental images strengthens memory. Results for Study of Alcoholic Amnesics, Non-Alcoholic Amnesics, & Non-Alcoholics Non-Amnesics on Recall and Word Fragment Completion Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Graf, P., Shimamura, A. P., & Squire, L. R. (1985). Subject read lists of words. Subjects rated the words on a list on scale from 1 = “like extremely” to 5 = “dislike extremely”. 2) Recall Trials: Subjects attempted to recall the words. 3) Implicit Memory Trials: Subjects performed WFC with the words. Results: Amnesics do just as well as other groups on implicit memory (WFC) but do much worse on explicit memory (recall). Explicit Memory  Implicit Memory INPT ALC AMN Recall trials and implicit memory trials follow immediately after subjects complete the ratings of liking. perform as well as other groups perform worse than other groups Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Warrington & Weiskrantz: Korsakoff Patients Identify Incomplete Figures

Related Study by Warrington & Weiskrantz (Figures 6.11 & 6.12)
Errors Day of Training Patients lack episodic memory of studying the words, but implicit memory task (WFC) shows that they retain information from the study list. Korsakoff patients were asked to identify incomplete pictures (pictures with parts of the objects erased). Patients were not asked: Have you seen this before? (explicit memory test) Patients were asked: What is it? (implicit memory test) Over three days, the patients improved without remembering previous training or exposure to the stimuli. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explicit & Implicit Memory Have Different Forgetting Curves

Episodic & Implicit Memory Show Different Patterns of Forgetting
1 hour days % Correct Recognition WFC Tulving et al. (1982) studied recognition and WFC among normal subjects. Graph shows that recognition (episodic memory) and WFC (implicit memory) show different patterns of forgetting over time. Episodic memory is lost faster than implicit memory. Bottom Line: Explicit (declarative) memory & implicit memory are based on different memory systems. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Episodic & Implicit Memory Are Not Mutually Exclusive

Explicit Memory & Implicit Memory are Not Mutually Exclusive
Many memories can have both explicit and implicit components Suppose I have a conversation earlier in the day about working memory. I can have an explicit episodic memory of that conversation. My implicit memory of the conversation can have an influence on thoughts that I have about other issues in psychology. Implicit components can guide the construction of an explicit (episodic) memory. A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: A woman was attacked in her home shortly after watching a TV show in which a psychologist, David Thompson, was interviewed. Later she identified David Thompson as the attacker (He had an alibi, the interview on the TV show.) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Builds Strong Memories?

What Builds Strong Memories?
Some experiences are remembered easily and for a long time. Other experiences are forgotten. What is the difference? Some scientific topics are remembered for a long time. Other topics are forgotten quickly. What is the difference? What are effective study habits? Students often want to know the answer to this question. * Red polygon outlines the main memory systems involved in this question. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Modal Model of Memory - Reminder of Encoding, Retrieval and Consolidation

Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation
Sensory Store Short-Term Store Long-Term Store Retrieval Encoding External World Control Processes Encoding, Retrieval & Consolidation * How to build stronger memories? Encoding – creating an LTM out of currently processed information Retrieval – bringing information that is stored in LTM back to STM Consolidation – a process that strengthens memories over time. Consolidation increases the chances for retrieval. Maintenance Rehearsal & Elaborative Rehearsal Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

In General, What Makes Memories Memorable?
Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop retrieval strategies and retrieval cues that will be useful on future occasions. NEXT Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Maintenance Rehearsal and Elaborative Rehearsal

Maintenance Rehearsal & Elaborative Rehearsal
Maintenance Rehearsal – repeating to-be-remembered information over and over (phonological loop) "Memorization" = Maintenance Rehearsal (cognitive psychologist's term) Elaborative rehearsal – drawing connections between to-be-remembered information and other information, especially connections based on meaning. Memory for meaning Form associations between what you want to remember and other ideas, facts, concepts, etc. Create retrieval cues. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Mere Repetition is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory

Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
Craik & Watkins (1973): The amount of maintenance rehearsal has very little influence on the likelihood of correct recall. Subjects heard sequences of words. Subjects task was to remember the most recent word in the list that started with a particular letter, e.g., "p". Example: Study the following list of words: Correct answer = "post" last "p" word Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Continue Craik & Watkins (1973) – Differences in Number of Rehearsals

Mere Repetition Is Ineffective for Strengthening Memory
last "p" word At end of experiment, subjects were asked to recall as many of the words on the lists as they could remember. Different "p" words are rehearsed a different number of times. E.g., "peach" is rehearsed more than "pin" because "peach" has 4 non-"p" words following it and "pin" has only 2 non-"p" words following it. Finding: Likelihood of recall was unrelated to number of intervening non-p words, i.e., unrelated to the amount of maintenance rehearsal. Memorization is an ineffective learning strategy. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Maintenance vs Elaborative Rehearsal – Depth of Processing Hypothesis

Depth of Processing (Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
Depth of Processing Hypothesis: Depth of processing at time of study is the main determinant of ease of remembering. Processing of to-be-remembered material proceeds from shallow features to deeper content. SHALLOW Letters in words Sound of words DEEP Meaning Relationship to other knowledge Another way to state the depth of processing hypothesis: Speed of processing is slower but strength of memory trace is greater when encoding occurs at deeper levels of processing. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis

Craik & Tulving Test of Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Experimental Paradigm: On each trial, the subject sees a word and answers a question about the word. Condition 1 (very shallow processing): Example: Does the word “dungeon” contain the letter “t”? Condition 2 (moderately shallow processing): Example: Does the word “dungeon" rhyme with “engine"? Condition 3 (deeper processing of meaning): Example: Does the word “dungeon" fit into the sentence, “The prisoner was kept in a ______ for two years."? Later the subject is asked to recall the words, and the percentage of correct recall is recorded. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results re Experiment

Results re Depth of Processing Hypothesis
Finding: Reaction time is slower but percent correct recall gets better as processing gets deeper and deeper. Recall improves with deeper processing during study. Result supports depth of processing hypothesis. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Confounding of Depth of Processing with Encoding Duration

Confounding of Depth of Processing with Duration of Encoding
Two confounded aspects of deep processing: Deep processing takes longer than shallow processing (in general). Deep processing emphasizes the meaning of the to-be-learned material and its relationship to other pieces of knowledge. Question: Does deeper processing produce better memory because it takes longer or because it emphasizes meaning? Answer: Clever experiments demonstrate it is the type of processing (meaning-based) and not the duration of processing that creates the stronger memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Outline of Effective Study Habits

Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop retrieval strategies and retrieval cues that will be useful on future occasions. NEXT . Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Generation Effect

Generation Effect Anti-Passive Learning
Generation effect: You are more likely to remember information that you retrieve or generate (during study) than information that you simply receive and attempt to “memorize.” Intuitive idea: Mental activity at time of study promotes future recall. Any ideas that you generate during study can serve as retrieval cues when you need to remember the information later. Generation Effect Anti-Passive Learning Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Mantyla Experiment: Self-Generated Stronger than Other-Generated Cues

Generating Semantic Associates Creates Strong Retrieval Cues
Mantyla (1986): Purpose of Study: to show that semantic associates that were present at study are effective cues for recall; self-generated cues are the more effective cues for recall than are cues that someone else generates. Memory Task: Subjects study words. Later they are asked to recall them (test method = cued recall). 3 experimental conditions (next slide) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design

Mantyla (1986): Experimental Design
Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 1

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. List 3 words that are related to “snow”: What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Uh – “white”, “cold”, “wet” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 2

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. The word "snow” is related to: “white”, cold”, “wet". What word is related to: "white”, “cold”, “wet”? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat this Slide with Examples of Condition 3

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Remember the word: “snow” What word is related to: “white”, “cold”, “wet”? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Only Summary Descriptions Emphasized

Condition 1: Generate word cues at study; use them at test At study, list 3 words that are closely associated with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the stimulus word. (cued recall) Condition 2: See word cues at study; use them at test At study, see 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject along with each target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words and is asked to recall the target word. (cued recall) Condition 3: See no word cues at study; but use word cues at test At study, subject just sees the target word. At test, subject is given the 3 associated words that were produced by a different subject and is asked to recall the stimulus word. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results

Goldstein, Figure 7.9. Results from Mantyla (1986)
Condition 1: 90% correct Condition 2: 55% correct Condition 3: 17% correct Condition 1: Generate cues; use cues Condition 2 See cues; use cues Condition 3 See no cues; use cues SUMMARY Cues are helpful at time of test. Cues that you have studied are even more helpful at time of test. Cues that you generated yourself are even more helpful at time of test. Why is this the pattern of memory results? Cues promote retrieval by means of associative connections. (Obvious) Generating our own cues helps us learn to access meaningful relationships. Goldstein, Figure 7.9. Results from Mantyla (1986) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy

Self-Reference Has Mnemonic Efficacy
Principle: Self-referential relations are remembered better than items without self-referential relations. "serene" - Does this word rhyme with "siren"? "serene" - Does this word describe you? Ask yourself: Is this information related to me in any way? Does this information remind me of anything that has happened to me? weaker at test stronger at test Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat Slide with List of Effective Mnemonics - Mental Imagery Next

Mere repetition (memorization) is ineffective. What is effective? Elaboration & Association Generation of Related Thoughts Creating Related Mental Images Repeated Retrievals, Reprocessing, & Re-encoding Develop retrieval strategies and retrieval cues that will be useful on future occasions. NEXT . Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Mental Imagery Enhances Memory

Mental Imagery Enhances Memory
Principle: In general, images are remembered better than words. Picture Superiority Effect: "tiger" versus Experimental Demonstration of the Efficacy of Mental Images on Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Mental Imagery Enhances Memory (Bower & Winzenz (1970)
Repetition Group: Repeat a word pair, e.g., "boat-tree- boat-tree-boat-tree-...." Imagery Group: Form a mental image in which the two objects are interacting. Both groups had 5 seconds per word pair. Results: Imagery group remembered over twice as much in cued recall. Figure 7.3 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Experiment re Image Interaction & Bizarreness

Effects of Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Interacting Non-Interacting Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., & Lowry, D. H. (1972). Bizarreness versus interaction of mental images as determinants of learning. Cognitive Psychology, 3, Subjects had to learn word pairs that were accompanied by pictures. E.g., PIANO + CIGAR Bizarre Not Bizarre Pictures were either non-bizarre or bizarre. Pictures were either non-interacting or interacting. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results for Interaction & Bizarreness

Results for Image Interaction & Bizarreness
Interacting Non-Interacting Wollen, K. A., Weber, A., & Lowry, D. H. (1972). Bizarreness versus interac-tion of mental images as determinants of learning. Cognitive Psychology, 3, Memory was better for interacting images than non-interacting images. Bizarreness had no effect. Bizarre Not Bizarre Evidence suggests that in general, interacting images are a power mnemonic tool, but it doesn't matter whether the image is reasonable or bizarre. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Does Generating Related Ideas Promote Future Memory?

Why Does Generating Ideas Improve Memory?
Ideas that you generate serve as retrieval cues. Ideas that you generate create associations with other ideas. Links to these other ideas serve as retrieval cues. The more links you have to a concept, the more ways you have to access this information. Mental imagery creates stronger retrieval cues than verbal descriptions. The mental activity of discovering associations and relationships is itself a skill and a habit. Using this skill improves this skill. Using this habit strenthens this habit. Class Problem: Suggest Ways to Strengthen a Memory About the Hippocampus END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Class Exercise: Generate mental associations and mental images to help remember something that you are trying to learn. COMMIT TO MEMORY: “Memories are not stored in the hippocampus, but the hippocampus is critical for packaging memories and for moving them into storage.” (Metaphor) Generate some images or analogies that describe the functioning of the hippocampus. Hippocampus is like a records clerk in a business. Hippocampus is like a antique collector who has a very small shop with a very large warehouse. * “hippo” – Greek for horse; “kampus” – Greek for monster; “hippokampus” – Greek for sea horse. The hippocampus is shaped like a sea horse. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END

How to Improve the Chance of Future Retrieval

Outline Generating related ideas strengthens memory.  Generating related mental images strengthens memory.  Testing effect - testing enhances future recall of tested material The spacing effect Organizing the material strengthens memory for the memory Illusions of Learning Matching the context of retrieval to the context of encoding Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 The Testing Effect

The Testing Effect Testing memories strengthens memories, i.e., it increases the likelihood of retrieving the memories at a later time. It is not necessary to give the student feedback whether his or her answers are correct. This is true regardless of whether the subject succeeds in retrieving the information at the time of testing. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Roediger & Karpicke Experiment that Demonstrates the Testing Effect

Testing Improves Later Retrieval
Recall test Recall test Testing Group Delay Figure Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Read passage Solve math problems 5 minutes 2 days, or 1 week 7 minutes 7 minutes 2 minutes Reread passage Recall test Rereading Group Delay Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study) Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break) Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes. Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes. Both groups get a recall test following a delay (5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide: No Emphasis Rectangles

Testing Improves Later Retrieval
Recall test Recall test Testing Group Delay Figure Roediger` & Karpicke (2006) Read passage Solve math problems 5 minutes 2 days, or 1 week 7 minutes 7 minutes 2 minutes Reread passage Recall test Rereading Group Delay Read prose passage for 7 minutes (study) Solve math problem for 2 minutes. (take a break) Testing group: Take a recall test for 7 minutes. Rereading group: Reread passage for 7 minutes. Both groups get a recall test following a delay (5 minutes; 2 days; 1 week) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results from Roediger & Karpicke Study

Results for the Roediger & Karpicke (2006) Study
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Rereading produces better memory after 5 minute delay. Testing produces better memory after 2 day & 1 week delay. The superiority of recall test increases over time. Why does the recall test produce better memory (more successful retrieval) after the longer delays? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Does Testing Have Greater Advantage at Longer Delays?

Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Explanation 1: Rereading the material strengthens the episodic memory for the experience of studying the target material. Testing strengthens the semantic memory for associations between the target material and other knowledge. Testing also strengthen priming between associated ideas and the target material. Episodic memories lose strength faster than implicit memories and semantic memories. General idea: Practice makes perfect. If you want to remember something at a future time, you need to practice remembering. A full explanation of why testing creates a longer lasting memory requires a discussion of consolidation. Testing promotes consolidation of a memory. Rereading temporarily strengthens the memory but does not promote consolidation to the same degree. Typical mistake: People think that the goal of study is to encode the information. No! Primary goal is successful retrieval. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explanation 2 for the Same Results

Why Does Testing Improve Memory at Longer Delays?
5 minutes days week Delay Rereading Testing Proportion of Idea Units Recalled Explanation 2: Retrieval is a mental skill – it improves with practice. Attempting to retrieve information X helps you develop better retrieval strategies for X. Attempting to retrieve information X will consolidate the memory of X. General idea: Practice makes perfect. If you want to remember something at a future time, you need to practice remembering. A full explanation of why testing creates a longer lasting memory requires a discussion of consolidation. Testing promotes consolidation of a memory. Rereading temporarily strengthens the memory but does not promote consolidation to the same degree. Typical mistake: People think that the goal of study is to encode the information. No! Primary goal is successful retrieval. Organizing the Material Increases the Chance of Future Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
Goldstein's recommendations are largely the same as the one's I listed earlier in this lecture. These recommendations largely orginate in the work of Robert Bjork, a UCLA cognitive psychologist. Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Next Organization Promotes Stronger Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Organizing the Information at Encoding Improves Later Retrieval
Principle: It is easier to remember information that is organized in some reasonable way than information that is disorganized. Bower, Clark, Lesgold, & Winzenz (1969): Words that are organized into categories are remembered much better than the same words in a disorganized list. Tulving (1962): Given unorganized lists of words, subjects who create their own organization of the words do best at recalling the words. Why Organizing Promotes Future Retrieval Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Why Organization Promotes Future Retrieval
The effort to organize the material has mnemonic value because: Organizing the material causes you to chunk the material. It is easier to retrieve a few chunks than many separate pieces of information. Organizing the material generally requires linking it to other knowledge. These links serve as retrieval cues. Generating your own organization is more beneficial than having someone else give you an organization. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 The Spacing Effect

E.g., study for 2 hours straight.
The Spacing Effect Massed practice: Many trials with the same stimuli are undertaken without interruption. E.g., study for 2 hours straight. Distributed practice: Trials with the same stimuli are separated by periods with other activities. Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else), Study for 30 minutes, take a 10 minute break (think about something else). Spacing Effect: Distributed practice produces stronger memories than massed practice. Why does the spacing effect occur? Why does spacing effect occur? Reinstatement of previous learning promotes consolidation, i.e., temporary forgetting following by reinstatement of previous learning strengthens previous learning. Also, temporary forgetting can help to see new connections to other knowledge. Sleep strengthens memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Overview Diagram: Effective Study Methods

FACTORS THAT AID ENCODING & RETRIEVAL
Active Memory Create Connections Organization “Chicken experiment” (Goldstein, pp ). To remember “chicken”, it is more effective to study the cue, “The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling chicken,” than to study the cue, “She cooked the chicken.” The longer sentence produces a more dramatic image and it results in better retrieval. “Baloon experiment” (Goldstein, ). It is easier to remember a story about a balloon if you have a picture that helps you understand the story than without the picture. Without the picture, the story does not make much sense and it is very hard to remember. Generate related ideas Testing Interactive Imagery (boat-tree) Link to self (self-reference effect) Recall by groups i.e., recall related items together Present in an organized way (“tree” experiment) Meaningful framework (“balloon” experiment) Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.5, p. 184 Repeat Goldstein's Recommendations for Study - Emphasis on Illusions of Learning Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Goldstein’s Recommendations for Effective Study Habits
Elaborate on the given information Generate associations to other knowledge Test yourself without an answer key in front of you Organize the material in a meaningful way Take breaks Beware of "illusions of learning" NOTICE: Memorization is NOT a recommended study habit! Next Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Illusions of Learning

Illusions of Learning Illusions of learning - some study habits produce a false impression of having learned something. Immediate testing versus delayed testing. Immediate testing: Test immediately after a period of study. Delayed testing: Test after a delay of 20 minutes. Students who engage in immediate testing feel more confident that they have learned the material than students who engage in delayed testing. Students who engage in immediate testing later perform worse than students who engage in delayed testing. Rereading the material give students greater confidence that they know the material then testing, but it actually leads to lower performance. Goldstein has other examples. Effects of Encoding Context and Retrieval Context - Three Interesing Relationships Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Effect of Encoding Context & Retrieval Context
Encoding specificity State-dependent memory Transfer appropriate processing Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Encoding Specificity

Encoding Specificity Encoding Specificity: Retrieval of a memory is more likely if .... ... cues are present at retrieval that were also present at encoding. E.g., if you want to remember info about the hippocampus, retrieval should be more successful if you are tested in Gowen 201 than if your attempts to retrieve this information occur in a different context, e.g., a one-on-one conversation with a TA in a coffee shop. ... cues are present at retrieval that were present at previous retrievals. E.g., if you previously tried to remember information about the hippocampus while discussing some issue with a friend, then future attempts to remember info about the hippocampus should be more successful while discussing this issue or other issues with this friend or other friends. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Deep Sea Divers Memory

Deep Sea Divers’ Memory
Miyamoto's graph of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein's chart of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Analogous Result for Students Who Study for a Test

Wednesday, 2 May, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here

Deep sea divers learned (encoded) word lists on land or under water. Later the divers had to recall these words either on land or under water. Cross-over interaction indicates encoding specificity. Top & bottom figures show the same information. Top figure is JM’s preferred way to look at the data. Bottom figure is Figure 7.10a (p. 190) in the Goldstein textbook. Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Analogous Result for Students Who Study for a Test

Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Test Score Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Grey Barrier Removed

Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Test Score Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Minor Ethical Dilemma

Minor Ethical Dilemma If you want to do well on an exam, study under conditions that are just like the exam. If you want to remember the course for general purpose needs, study under diverse circumstances. What’s your goal? Doing well on the exam? Knowing and understanding the course material? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 State Dependent Memory

1st: Matching Cues Present at Study to Cues Present at Test 2nd: Introduction to Consolidation

Outline Matching Encoding Context to Retrieval Context
Encoding specificity State-dependent memory Transfer appropriate processing Consolidation of memories Standard model of consolidation (Alternative theory: The multiple trace model of consolidation) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Encoding Specificity

Encoding Specificity Encoding Specificity: Retrieval of a memory is more likely if .... ... cues are present at retrieval that were also present at encoding. E.g., if you want to remember info about the hippocampus, retrieval should be more successful if you are tested in Gowen 201 than if your attempts to retrieve this information occur in a different context, e.g., a one-on-one conversation with a TA in a coffee shop. ... cues are present at retrieval that were present at previous retrievals. E.g., if you previously tried to remember information about the hippocampus while discussing some issue with a friend, then future attempts to remember info about the hippocampus should be more successful while discussing this issue or other issues with this friend or other friends. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Deep Sea Divers Memory

Deep sea divers learned (encoded) word lists on land or under water. Later the divers had to recall these words either on land or under water. Cross-over interaction indicates encoding specificity. Top & bottom figures show the same information. Top figure is JM’s preferred way to look at the data. Bottom figure is Figure 7.10a (p. 190) in the Goldstein textbook. Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Display Goldstein’s Chart with Miyamoto’s Graph

Miyamoto's graph of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein's chart of the results for deep sea divers' memory Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Analogous Result for Students Who Study for a Test

Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Test Score Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Grey Barrier Removed

Students Taking Test Study in Noisy Place Test Score Study in Quiet Place Test Noisy Test Quiet Goldstein, Figure 7.10a (p. 190) Goldstein, Figure 7.10b (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Minor Ethical Dilemma

Minor Ethical Dilemma If you want to do well on an exam, study under conditions that are just like the exam. If you want to remember the course for general purpose needs, study under diverse circumstances. What’s your goal? Doing well on the exam? Knowing and understanding the course material? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 State Dependent Memory

State Dependent Memory
State-Dependent Memory: Memory performance will be better if the mental or emotional state at time of retrieval is the same as the mental or emotional state at time of encoding. Evidence for this hypothesis is weak. Predicted Results Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Eich's Experiment on State Dependent Memory

State Dependent Memory
Goldstein Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Mood Induction: Subjects were put in a happy mood by listening to happy music and thinking happy thoughts. (Similar method for sad mood). Subjects studied word lists while in a happy or sad mood, and were tested while in a happy or sad mood. Goldstein, Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory

Eich & Metcalfe (1989) Results for State Dependent Memory
Miyamoto's graph of the Eich & Metcalfe results. Goldstein Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Goldstein's chart of the Eich & Metcalfe results. Goldstein, Figure 7.10c (p. 190) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory

Encoding Specificity versus State Dependent Memory
Encoding specificity – matching the external cues at study and test promotes better recall. State-dependent memory – matching the internal psychological state at study and test promotes better recall. Evidence is stronger for encoding specificity than for state-dependent memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Transfer Appropriate Processing

Transfer Appropriate Processing
Transfer-Appropriate-Processing – Used as a evidence against the depth-of-processing hypothesis I.e., It is used to show that deeper semantic processing at encoding does not always produce the strongest associations at recall. Morris, C. D., Bransford, J. D., & Franks, J. J. (1977). Levels of processing versus transfer appropriate processing. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior, 16, Purpose of study is to show that "deeper" levels of processing do not always produce better recall. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Two Different Study Conditions; Two Different Tasks at Test

Two Different Study Tasks (Encoding Stage)
Two Types of Study Conditions: Meaning Condition: Target word: "rose" Task at study: Does "rose" fit in the sentence, "A ___ bush grows by my front door"? Rhyming Condition: Target word: "rose" Task at study: Does "rose" rhyme with "nose"? Two Types of Memory Test (Retrieval) Standard recognition memory test: Did you see “rose” on the list? Did you see “cow” on the list? Cued Recall Test (Rhyming Test): What word did you study that rhymes with "hose"? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results: 2 x 2 Table Shows Results that Support Transfer Appropriate Processing

Transfer Appropriate Processing (cont.)
Semantic Encoding Rhyme Encoding Rhyme Cued-Recall Test 33 % 49 % Standard Recognition Test 82 % 62 % The results in row 1 are displayed in Goldstein Figure 7.11 (p. 192). The results in row 2 were not displayed in Goldstein. Only column 1 results are presented in Goldstein, but column 2 shows that with a standard recognition task, you get the typical superiority of semantic encoding. INTERPRETATION: Notice 33% < 49% but 82% > 62% Deeper semantic processing at encoding did not produce better recall in the cued (rhyme) recognition test. Why? In the (Rhyme Acquisition/Rhyme Test) condition, word-sound associations that were made at study were more similar to the retrieval cue (a similar sounding word), so rhyme encoding was better than semantic encoding. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Is It Called "Transfer-Appropriate Processing"?

Why is it called transfer-appropriate processing?
In the study of learning and problem solving, subjects are said to "transfer" their knowledge from one area to another. EXAMPLE: If subject learns to solve equations in a math class, we can test whether he/she uses this knowledge in physics class. This is a test for whether the equation-solving knowledge transfers to a related physics problem solving situation. In the previous experiment, studying one rhyme at encoding transferred to use of a rhyming cue at test. General claim: Recall and recognition will be best if the cognitive processing that occurs during encoding is similar to the cognitive processing that occurs during retrieval. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Depth of Processing versus Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Depth of Processing versus Transfer Appropriate Processing
In general, deeper processing produces better (stronger) memories, but ... this is only true because we usually want to remember the meaning of something that we have encountered or experienced. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary

Summary re Matching Encoding Context to Retrieval Context
Encoding specificity – matching the external cues at study and test promotes better recall. State-dependent memory – matching the internal psychological state at study and test promotes better recall. Evidence is stronger for encoding specificity than for state-dependent memory. Transfer appropriate processing - recall is better if the cues that are emphasized at study are also emphasized at test. Depth of processing hypothesis is not always true - this is worth knowing on theoretical grounds. Yes, but how often is this important in everyday experience? Isn't semantic processing at time of study almost always the most advantageous strategy? (Rare exception when retrieval cues are rhymes.) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Consolidation of Memories

Consolidation of Memories
Recently created memories are typically fragile. Without additional retrievals, they are often too weak to retrieve. A concussion soon after learning can cause permanent loss of a memory. Fragility of new memories implies that it takes cognitive processing after the initial experience to create a strong memory. Goldstein, Figure Typical pattern of retrograde amnesia. The recent past is the least consolidated - it is the most likely to be lost. More distant past is more consolidated - it is more likely to be preserved. Consolidation is the process by which a memory is transformed from an unstable state to a more permanent state. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Is Happening During Consolidation?

What Is Happening During Memory Consolidation?
Changes are happening at two levels: Synaptic Consolidation: Repeated experience causes changes at the level of the synapse. These changes occur quickly, over a matter of minutes. Systems Consolidation: Repeated retrievals cause changes in the organization of neural circuits that represent memories. These changes occur gradually, over days, months or even years. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Synaptic Changes During Learning – Long-Term Potentiation

Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 1st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. Same Diagram without Emphasis Rectangles 380 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Synaptic Consolidation
Goldstein (2014), Figure 7.14, p. 194 1st Presentation of Stimulus Continued Presentation of Stimulus After Many Presentations of Stimulus Structural Changes Increased firing (LTP) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): Structural changes at synapse result in increased firing to the same stimulus. System Consolidation - Long-Term Process of Memory Formation 381 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

System Consolidation: The Time Course of Memory Formation
Figure 7.15 (p. 195) attempts to explain the role of the hippocampus in the encoding and consolidation of memories. Hippocampus Cortical Areas Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Left

The Time Course of Memory Formation
Initial Encoding of Current Experience Hippocampus Cortical Areas Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Middle

Retrieval of Episodic Memory Hippocampus Cortical Areas Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram – Emphasis Rectangle on Right

Retrieval (After Much Learning) of Episodic Memory Hippocampus Cortical Areas Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Transition to Diagrams That Show the Same Process But With Different Graphics

The Standard Model of Memory Consolidation
The next slides display the same ideas as the preceding slides, but with more informative graphics. The next set of slides show: The Standard Model of Memory Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Explanation of Consolidation in terms of Brain Diagrams

Encoding 1: Processing of current information activates different brain areas in occipital, parietal, temporal and frontal cortex. Event or episode This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). 2: Multiple brain activations spread to hippocampus (convergence zone). Somehow, hippocampus binds multimodal inputs together and encodes long-term memory. Event or episode Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram of Brain Activity During Retrieval

Retrieval 3: At time of recall, partial cues stimulate some brain areas that were also activated at encoding. 5: Somehow, the hippocampus triggers pattern completion (partial reactivation of original activation pattern). Partial cue 4: Activation spreads to the hippocampus. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Partial cue Partial cue Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Diagram with Statement of Recapitulation Hypothesis

Retrieval Reactivation Hypothesis: (Goldstein, p. 195)
Episodic retrieval involves reinstatement of activations that were present during encoding. Hippocampus plays an important role in reactivation. This slide is based on instructional material that was downloaded from the Pearson Publishers website ( for Smith & Kosslyn (2006; ISBN ). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Reactivation Before & After Consolidation

Standard Model of Consolidation:
Retrieval BEFORE consolidation has been completed. Retrieval AFTER consolidation has been completed. Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Multiple Trace Model of Consolidation
Multiple trace model is opposed to the standard model of consolidation. According to this model, the hippocampus is involved in retrieval of remote episodic memories as well as recent episodic memories, but only if they are not semanticized. Semanticization of Episodic Memories & the Remember/Know Distinction Hippocampus is active during retrieval of remote episodic memories that the subjects "remember", but not during the retrieval of memories that the subjects "know" are true, but don't "remember". Intuitive ideas: Over time, memories can become facts (as opposed to retrieval of experiences). Retrieval of facts may not involve the hippocampus to the same degree as retrieval of experiences. This is called the semanticization of memories (transformation of a memory from being episodic to being semantic). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Consolidation & Reconsolidation

Consolidation & Reconsolidation
Fact to be discussed later in next lecture: When a memory is retrieved, it is vulnerable to change. After retrieval of a memory, it is necessary to store the memory again to return it to a permanent state. Consolidation refers to processes that change an initially encoded memory into a permanent memory. Reconsolidation refers to processes that restore a memory to a more permanent form after it has been retrieved. Sometimes consolidation & reconsolidation are referred to together as “consolidation.” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Role of Sleep in Consolidation

Interestingly Enough, ..... Sleep (dreaming?) plays a functional role in promoting consolidation. Rat brain cells that fire together while exploring a location also show increased firing during subsequent sleep. Not true of other cells that did not fire during exploration. Disruption of dreaming seems to disrupt consolidation. Similar effects with humans who are learning to play tetris. Some evidence suggests that if a subject expects to be tested on Topic A but not on Topic B, then sleep (possibly, dreaming) enhances future memory of Topic A more than Topic B. Role of sleep in consolidation is not understood, but there seems to be a significant relationship between sleep and consolidation. Goldstein isn’t clear about the distinction between consolidation and reconsolidation. It is certain that they are similar; are they identical? The current literature doesn’t give a definite answer to this questions. McKenzie, S., & Eichenbaum, H. (2011). Consolidation and reconsolidation: Two lives of memories? Neuron, 71, Alberini, C. M. (2005). Mechanisms of memory stabilization: Are consolidation and reconsolidation similar or distinct processes? Trends in Neurosciences, 28(1), Summary of Standard Model of Consolidation - END Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Summary re Standard Model of Consolidation
Consolidation & reconsolidation ... ... long-term memory representations become more stable over time; ... hippocampus plays a central role in retrieval of incompletely consolidated memories; ... over time, retrieval of memories becomes independent from the hippocampus and other medial temporal lobe activity. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END

Remember/Know Distinction in LTM Research
Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: Brianna Yamasaki and Roy Seo 05/04/2018: Section Week 6

Outline Remember/Know Procedure Episodic & Semantic Memory
Interactions Between Episodic & Semantic Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Two ways of remembering
Remember (recollect): Remembering contextual details about a memory details of the specific experience under which knowledge was obtained Know (familiar): A sense of knowing something without being able to remember the context in which the memory originated. no details about specific experience Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Remember/Know Procedure
Remember/Know Procedure: A procedure for measuring recognition memory Phase 1: Subjects presented stimuli (words) and asked to generate a rhyme or synonym E.g., Bunny  Funny (generate rhyme) Bunny  Rabbit (generate synonym) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

A procedure for measuring recognition memory Phase 2: Subjects presented series of words 50% presented in Phase 1 50% new Task: Answer the question, "Was this word in Phase 1?" If it was, decide whether you remember the word or simply know it was on the list. Remember/Know procedure Remember if a stimulus is familiar and the circumstance under which it was encountered? Know if the stimulus is familiar but don’t remember experiencing it earlier? Don’t remember the stimulus at all Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Remember means that you are consciously aware of the learning episode You can recollect some aspect of the experience, such as the word you provided as a synonym or rhyme, or the word that came before, or your thoughts about the word Know means you can't recollect such information but that you believe that the word was on the list that you studied The belief that the word was on the list might be based on a felling of familiarity, or a memory that words that were similar in meaning were on the list Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Remember means that you are consciously aware of the learning episode You can recollect some aspect of the experience, such as the word you provided as a synonym or rhyme, or the word that came before, or your thoughts about the word  episodic memory Know means you can't recollect such information but that you believe that the word was on the list that you studied The belief that the word was on the list might be based on a felling of familiarity, or a memory that words that were similar in meaning were on the list  semantic memory (possibly supported by priming and metacognitive inferences) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Episodic - Semantic Memory Interactions
Laboratory studies may focus on the distinctions between semantic and episodic memories, but this distinction is less clear in everyday memories Episodic memories can be lost, leaving only semantic memories Acquiring knowledge may start as episodic but then “fade” to semantic Semanticization of episodic memory over time Semantic memories can influence what we experience (episodic) by determining what we attend to Autobiographical Memory Memory of specific experiences, includes semantic and episodic memories Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Semanticization of memories
Effect of time Semanticization of memories Typically, researchers find that forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding – but more so for episodic memories, than the semantic components Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Semanticization of memories
Effect of time Semanticization of memories Typically, researchers find that forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding – but more so for episodic memories, than the semantic components Remember/know experiment (Petrican et al., 2010) How people’s memory for public events changed over time Method: Present descriptions of events that had happened over a 50-year period to older adults Participants responded with ‘Remember’, ‘Know’, or ‘Don’t know’ for each event Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Effect of time Remember/know experiment results (Petrican et al., 2010) Forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Effect of time Remember/know experiment results (Petrican et al., 2010) Forgetting increases with longer intervals from the original encoding Interaction with recognition type – greater loss for ‘remembering’ than for ‘knowing’ Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Effect of time Remember/know experiment results (Petrican et al., 2010) Loss of episodic details over time Some memories may start with a strong episodic component, then over time, it may transition to being a semantic memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Summary In lab settings, the focus is on the distinction between episodic and semantic memory In everyday life, this distinction is less clear and pragmatically artificial Some memories have both episodic and semantic components Some memories may start with a strong episodic component, then over time, may transition to solely a semantic memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

"Consolidation theory posits that once a memory is consolidated, it remains consolidated.
In contrast to this expectation, we will argue that memory retrieval can return a consolidated/ﬁxed memory to an unstable state once again, from which the memory is then restabilized." Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). The labile nature of consolidation theory. Nature, 1, 216–219. To be displayed later in lecture: < Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Retrieval, Reconsolidation, & the Formation of Memories

Outline Memory consolidation is a process that involves multiple retrievals of memory representations. Memories are labile at time of retrieval. Memories can be changed by mental processes and events at time of retrieval. Fear conditioning in rats can be undone by blocking the reconsolidation of the fear memories. Retrieval of the emotional components of a traumatic memory can be reduced by blocking the reconsolidation of the emotional response to the memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Hypothesis: Memory Representations are Malleable at Time of Retrieval

Memory Representations Are Malleable At Time of Retrieval
Hypothesis: When memories are retrieved, they are vulnerable to change. After retrieval, a memory must be reconsolidated (stored again in long-term memory). The reconsolidation preserves changes in a memory that occur during retrieval of the memory. Under special circumstances, when memories are retrieved, memories can be altered, even wiped out. Can these ideas be used to develop a treatment for PTSD? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat

Undoing Fear Conditioning in the Rat
Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). Fear memories require protein synthesis in the amygdala for reconsolidation after retrieval. Nature, 406, If a tone is paired with an electric shock, a rat will learn to freeze when it hears the tone (classical conditioning of fear). Administering anisomycin to a rat can cause it to fail to learn fear conditioning. Anisomycin – antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis that is required in the formation of new memories. If memories can be changed at time of retrieval, can anisomycin be used to make a rat unlearn the fear conditioning that it previously learned? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Experimental Design (Diagram of Rat Learning or Unlearning)

Experimental Design Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + Drug Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows learning) Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Spring 2014: Garret Zieve (student) pointed out that we need one more condition: Condition *4*: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone (no shock) Day 3: Test tone alone. Need to verify that Day 2 tone alone does not extinguish the conditioning. You need Day 2 drug + tone (no shock) to decondiiton the rat. 5/20/2014: JM talked with Lauren Graham about Garret’s point. She says that the answer depends on the strength of the initial shock (stronger shock is harder to extinguish) and the number of extinction trials on Day 2, but if the Day 1 shock were strong enough and if there was only one extinction trial on Day 2, then indeed it would be well-known that without the drug on Day 2, the one extinction trial would not extinguish the fear conditioning from Day 2. Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug + tone, no shock. Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no learning) Day Day Day 3 Figure 7.20 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Repeat This Slide with Emphasis Rectangles

Experimental Design Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + Drug Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no fear conditioning) Day Day Day 3 Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; (No Tone; No Shock) Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows fear conditioning) Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Spring 2014: Garret Zieve (student) pointed out that we need one more condition: Condition *4*: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone (no shock) Day 3: Test tone alone. Need to verify that Day 2 tone alone does not extinguish the conditioning. You need Day 2 drug + tone (no shock) to decondiiton the rat. 5/20/2014: JM talked with Lauren Graham about Garret’s point. She says that the answer depends on the strength of the initial shock (stronger shock is harder to extinguish) and the number of extinction trials on Day 2, but if the Day 1 shock were strong enough and if there was only one extinction trial on Day 2, then indeed it would be well-known that without the drug on Day 2, the one extinction trial would not extinguish the fear conditioning from Day 2. Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone + Drug (No Shock) Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no fear conditioning) Day Day Day 3 Figure 7.20 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of Experimental Findings

Summary of Experimental Findings
Condition 1: Day 1: Tone + Shock + Drug Day 2: No drug; no tone; no shock Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no fear conditioning) Combining drug with tone & shock on Day 1 prevents fear conditioning. Condition 2: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Drug; (No Tone; No Shock) Day 3: Freezes to tone (shows fear conditioning) Drug on Day 2 does not undo fear conditioning. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Condition 3: Day 1: Tone + Shock Day 2: Tone + Drug (No Shock) Day 3: Does not freeze to tone (shows no fear conditioning) Combining drug with retrieval of fear conditioning on Day 2 undoes fear conditioning. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Interpretation - Retrieval Makes Day 1 Learning Vulnerable to Change

Interpretation Retrieval makes the fear conditioning from Day 1 vulnerable to change. Combining retrieval with drug prevents reconsolidation of memory of fear conditioning, thereby causing loss of conditioning. Condition displayed to the right: Nader et al. (2000) state that the memory trace is "labile" during retrieval, i.e., its form can be changed at that time. Day Day Day 3 Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats learned to freeze on Day 1. Conditions 1 & 3: In both conditions, rats got anisomycin on Day 2. But rats in Condition 1 did not forget their learning on Day 1. Rats in Condition 3 did forget their learning. Why? Retrieval of learning on Day 2 made the learning from Day 1 vulnerable to loss (damage? unlearning?). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Using Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD

Using the Fragility of Memories During Retrieval to Treat PTSD
Brunet, A., Orr, S. P., Tremblay, J., Robertson, K., Nader, K., & Pitman, R. K. (2008). Effect of post- retrieval propranolol on psychophysiologic responding during subsequent script-driven traumatic imagery in post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD): Strong fear and stress responses are evoked by reminders of the initial traumatic event. Hypothesis: Fear and stress conditioning in PTSD patients can be reduced or eliminated by techniques that are similar to Nader et al.'s demonstration that rats can lose their fear conditioning. Study used propranolol, a drug that is used to prevent traumatic memories if administered immediately following a traumatic event. Propranolol reduces the fear & stress conditioning of trauma. By itself, propranolol will not reduce PTSD in someone who already has PTSD. It can be used to prevent PTSD if it is administered within several hours of a traumatic experience. Doing so, reduces physiological measures of fear and stress that accompany future retrieval of memories of the traumatic experience. The Goldstein textbook contains a misprint. The drug is referred to as “probanolol” but it should be “propranolol.” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Brunet et al.'s Subjects Were PTSD Patients

Brunet et al.'s Study of PTSD Subjects
PTSD patients: Childhood sexual abuse, motor vehicle accident, rape, being taken hostage. Comorbid mental disorders included: major depressive disorder, panic disorder, social phobia, bulimia, generalized anxiety disorder. Two scripts were prepared for each patient that described the events that produced the trauma for that patient. 19 PTSD patients were randomly assigned to either a TREATMENT Condition or a CONTROL Condition. (Conditions described on next slide.) Related paper on use of corticosteroids to mitigate or block PTSD: E:\pprs\Neuro\ZoharJ Hydrocortisone After Trauma Alters Traj o PTSD.pdf Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Diagram that Shows the Experimental and Control Conditions

Brunet et al.'s Study: Treatment and Control Conditions
Patient hears recorded description of traumatic experience Patient is injected with propranolol. Patient is injected with placebo. 7 Days Related paper on use of corticosteroids to mitigate or block PTSD: E:\pprs\Neuro\ZoharJ Hydrocortisone After Trauma Alters Traj o PTSD.pdf Patient hears another recorded description of traumatic experience Measure anxiety Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Analogy Btwn Treatment of PTSD Treatment and Conditioning

Analogy Between PTSD Treatment & Conditioning
HUMAN RAT Traumatic experience Tone + shock conditioning in the rat Listen to taped description Rat hears tone without the shock of traumatic experience Injection of propranolol Injection of anisomycin immediately after recall immediately after rat hears tone ? Later, will the human seem to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the traumatic memories? Later, the rat seems to have unlearned the fear conditioning to the tone. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Experimental Results

Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
Brunet et al. Results Tensing of Frowning Muscles Heart Rate Skin Conductance Corrugator EMG Y-Axis: Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate Patients report symptom improvement. Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide Without Emphasis Rectangles

Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group
Brunet et al. Results Tensing of Frowning Muscles Heart Rate Skin Conductance Corrugator EMG Y-Axis Are Z-Scores Relative to Base Rate Patients report symptom improvement. Grey = placebo group; Black = propranolol group Result: Therapy reduces original fear conditioning. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Show Video of Treatment for Arachnaphobia.

PBS NOVA- MEMORY HACKERS, 2016
Merel Kindt's treatment of arachnaphobia < On YouTube under title "Psychology- Merel Kindt's Studies" Karim Nader's TED Talk Describes "erasing memories". Somewhat dry but it explains the ideas behind reconsolidation and therapy in a clear way. Old link to NOVA program: < This link no longer works 5/6/2018. Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Memories Are Malleable At Time of Retrieval

Malleability of Memories at Time of Retrieval
Learned associations can be lost during retrieval and reconsolidation. Rats unlearned tone-shock connection Humans unlearn (to some degree) the association between a traumatic memory and the emotional response. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 This Slide + Retrieval Strengthens Memory (Consolidation/Reconsolidation)

Learned associations can be lost during retrieval and reconsolidation. Consolidation & reconsolidation – Memories can be strengthened during retrieval. Thinking about something produces better future recall. Practice testing (retrieval) produces better future recall. Thinking about a memory makes it more primed, i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 This Slide + Query: Do These Facts Contradict Each Other? - END

Learned associations can be lost during retrieval and reconsolidation. Consolidation & reconsolidation – Memories can be strengthened during retrieval. Do these results contradict each other? Stored representations can change during retrieval and reconsolidation. Usually the change makes the memory stronger, better organized, more linked to other memories. The memory becomes more primed, i.e., more easily retrieved as an associate of something else. The opposite can also happen, E.g., rats unlearn their fear conditioning, or humans become desensitized to memories of trauma. (This is a special case that is based on the use of drugs that would not normally be present.) E.g., while we think about past events, i.e., during retrieval, we may distort the facts or even falsify what was once a true memory. Psychologists believe that this happens to everyone. No! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END

"Consolidation theory posits that once a memory is consolidated, it remains consolidated.
In contrast to this expectation, we will argue that memory retrieval can return a consolidated/ﬁxed memory to an unstable state once again, from which the memory is then restabilized." Nader, K., Schafe, G. E., & Le Doux, J. E. (2000). The labile nature of consolidation theory. Nature, 1, 216–219. To be displayed later in lecture: < Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Finish: Consolidation of Memories . Begin: Memory in the Real World

Outline The cycle of consolidation Autobiographical memory Memory over the life-span; the reminiscence bump Flashbulb memories Memory schemas Constructive memory Eyewitness memory Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 The Cycle of Consolidation

The Cycle of Consolidation
Cycle of consolidation (JM’s term): Repeatedly retrieving some memories. Possibly modifying the memories. Reconsolidating the memories, possibly with modifications. The cycle of consolidation happens spontaneously in many different situations. Image of a Man Thinking About an Argument with Significant Other Psych 355,, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Not-So-Instant Replay of Interpersonal Conflict
... I asked her why EFG? ... ... but she said ABC! ... ... so I said XYZ. ... ..., etc., etc., etc., ... ... she doesn’t care if PQR! ... ... she thinks JKL. ... Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Image of a Man Thinking About How to Compute a T-Test

Statistics Problem Solving
... Does it matter if the sample sizes are different? ... ... What’s the formula for SS Pooled? ... ..., etc., etc., etc., ... ... How do I calculate a T-test? ... ... What’s the difference between the standard deviation and the standard error? ... ... What are the degrees of freedom of SSpooled? ... Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Dwelling On Something Involves Lots of Retrievals

Dwelling on Something Usually Involves Lots of Retrieval
Retrieval creates the potential for modification of memories. Retrieval-induced memory change happens often. We spontaneously engage in thinking patterns that cause retrieval-induced memory change. This is the cycle of consolidation. Retrieval induced memory change is a tool for better study habits. Retrieval induced memory change is a tool for clinical modification of memories. My Guess (only a guess): * Retrieval-induced memory change is generally a beneficial adaptation. * Occasionally it causes systematic errors and possible harm. Start Autobiographical Memory Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Autobiographical Memory (AM)
Autobiographical memories are memories of one's personal experiences and history. Many autobiographical memories include episodic memories. E.g., I remember listening to a lecture on statistical theory last week, i.e., I remember where I was sitting in the room, who was around me, etc. Memory of a place might include a visual memory. Memory of food might include visual or olfactory aspects. Many autobiographical memories include semantic memories. E.g., I remember the name of my elementary school, but the name isn’t connected to a particular experience. E.g., memory of an your own actions might include a memory of why you were doing what you were doing, and whether the action was successful. If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012). E.g., material on lifetime retention functions and the reminiscence bump have been omitted. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Memory over the Life Span

Memory Over the Lifespan
What events are remembered well? Significant events in a person’s life Highly emotional events Transition points (periods of rapid change in personal situation) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Reminiscence Bump

Reminiscence Bump Procedure: Memories are cued by words that have been tested for producing many memories. "movies", "riots", "storm", etc. Method is a version of cued recall. If a person over 40 years old is interviewed, typically most memories pertain to the recent past or to the period between 10 & 30 years of age. The increase in memories for 10 – 30 years of age is called the reminiscence bump. * Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) is an interesting paper. Check it out! <D:\pprs\memory\RubinDC Things Lrnd i Early Adulthood Are Remembered Best.pdf> Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Comparison Between Two Curves that Represent the Reminiscence Bump

Reminiscence Bump Types of Memories that Make Up the Reminiscence Bump
Goldstein Figure 8.3: Percentage of memories from different ages, recalled by a 55-year-old, showing the reminiscence bump. Based on Schrauf & Rubin (1998) The figure on the right is from: Anderson, S. J., & Conway, M. A. (1997). Representation of autobiographical memories. In M. A. Conway (ed.), Cognitive models of memory, I added the vertical red lines to the figure. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Types of Memories that Make Up the Reminiscence Bump

Types of Memories in the Reminiscence Bump
Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) find better memories during ages 10 – 30 for: episodic memories. autobiographical facts, e.g., personal preferences at the time. memories for public events. memories for songs and music. memory for general knowledge learned at that time, e.g., Academy Awards or World Series results, other current events. * Rubin, Rahhal, & Poon (1998) is an interesting paper. Check it out! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Is There a Reminiscence Bump?

Why Is There a Reminiscence Bump?
Self-image hypothesis: Memory is strongest for events associated with personal identity formation. Cognitive hypothesis: Encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability. Cultural life script hypothesis: There is a script for a typical life in a given culture. Memory is strongest for important events in this life script, e.g., graduation, getting a job, marriage, (often in the 10 – 30 period). Figure 8.4. Frequency of memories over the lifespan. Red line – standard result. Blue dotted line – Hispanics who emigrated to U.S. at age 34 – 35. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Brief Comment re Childhood Amnesia

Childhood Amnesia Childhood amnesia What causes childhood amnesia?
Relatively few memories before the age of 10 Especially few before the age of 2 or 3 What causes childhood amnesia? Hypothesis: Immature brain, especially hippocampus & prefrontal cortex. Hypothesis: Immature language Hypothesis: Immature self-concept Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary re Memory over the Lifespan

Summary: Life Span Autobiographical Memory
Three main periods Childhood Amnesia: Why does childhood amnesia occur? Remiscence Bump: Why is there a reminiscence bump? Normal forgetting in later life. Forgetting happens (no kidding!) Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Outline – Flashbulb Memory Topic

Flashbulb Memories (FBM's)
Hypothesis: Memory for a dramatic or shocking event is preserved as if a photographic image was made by using a flashbulb with a camera. Do you remember where were you and what were you doing when you first heard about the attack on the World Trade Center? Do you have memories of a major accident, e.g., a car accident? QUESTIONS: Do flashbulb memories differ in strength from regular memories? How do they change over time? Do flashbulb memories involve different memory mechanisms from those that create or maintain ordinary memories? If using Spring 2014 or Winter 2013 slides as a basis for future P355 lectures, you should also look at Winter 2011 slides because material re everyday memory, autobiographical memory, schemas, and eyewitness memory was omitted from Winter 2012 and 2013 lectures due to lack of time (snow in 2012, expanded WM discussion in 2012). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 What Creates Autobiographical Memories that Lasts a Long Time?

What Creates AM’s that Last a Long Time?
Self-generation of associations (connecting a memory to other knowledge) Distinctiveness Personal importance causes repeated retrievals of a memory. Consolidation & reconsolidation. Distributed practice as opposed to massed practice Strong emotions enhance memory Hamann, Ely, Grafton, & Kilts (1999): PET study. Showed subject very pleasant, very unpleasant and neutral pictures. Emotionally charged pictures produced stronger amygdala response, and better memory. Cahill, Babinsky, Markowitsch, & McGaugh (1995). Patient with damaged amygdala (B. P.) had normal memory for unemotional narratives, but did not show enhanced memory for emotional parts of a narrative. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Do FBM's Involve a Special Memory Mechanism?

Is There A Special Memory Mechanism for Flashbulb Memories (FBMs)?
Pro: Special Mechanism FBMs are consequential – they have high impact on our lives. FBMs often produce strong emotions. Con: Special Mechanism Narrative rehearsal hypothesis – we think repeatedly about these events. They are only special because of this rehearsal. Just because we have vivid memories for FBMs doesn't mean that the memories are accurate. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Are FBM's Accurate?

Accuracy of FBM's Mixed evidence
Neisser & Harsch (1992) Subjects filled out a questionnaire within 1 day of Challenger disaster (1986), and a similar questionnaire 2.5 years later. Subjects were asked how they learned about the disaster. Large distortions. Phantom flashbulbs – subjects often replaced initial memory with another, TV-based memory. 21% said that they initially learned of event from the TV. After 2.5 years, 45% said that they learned of event from the TV. Result for phantom flashbulbs could be due to retroactive interference (subsequent TV watching becomes confused with memory for initial learning). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Time Course of Memories for 9/11 Attacks

Talarico: Time Course of an FBM
Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, Studied memories for the 9/11 attack on WTC. On 9/12/01, 54 Duke students wrote down their memories of how they first heard of the 9/11 attack. They also wrote down a recent everyday memory, e.g., going to a sporting event. The study compared 9/11 memories to everyday memories after varying delays. Graphs Showing Decrease in Accuracy but not Decrease in Certainty for FBM Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Goldstein Fig. 8.8. Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Number of details correctly recalled for everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Confidence in the accuracy of everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of Results Depicted in these Graphs (Redundant)

Talarico Fig 1a Figure 1 from Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, Number of correct details diminishes over time for both flashbulb and everyday memories. Belief in the accuracy of memories diminishes over time for everyday memories but remains high for FBM's. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Similar Result for O. J. Simpson Murder Trial

Tuesday, 8 May, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here

Memory for the O. J. Simpson Murder Trial: 15 & 32 Months After the Trial
Schmolck, H., Buffalo, E. A., & Squire, L. R. (2000). Memory for distortions develop over time: Recollections of the O. J. Simpson trial verdict after 15 and 32 months. Psychological Science, 11, Subjects were interviewed 3 days after the verdict in the O. J. Simpson murder trial. Answered questions about their thoughts on the trial, e.g., how did you learn of the verdict? how do you feel about the verdict? Subjects were randomly assigned to a 2nd interview 15 or 32 months after the 1st interview. Subjects were asked to recall what they thought at the 1st interview. Over time, there are fewer "don't remember" responses, and more very inaccurate memories (Schmolck et al., 2000). June of 1994: Nicole Brown Simpson & Ronald Goldman were stabbed to death. January of 1995: Trial of O. J. Simpson begins. October of 1995: Simpson is found not guilty of 2 counts of murder. Similar results for death of Princess Diana in August English people interviewed in out of 45 (44%) reported watching a video of her car crash even though no such video was ever made public. "Don't Remember” Very Inaccurate Responses Responses Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Confidence Remains High While Accuracy Diminishes Over Time

Why do people have high confidence in the accuracy of FBM's even though the accuracy declines?
People keep thinking about flashbulb memories. Increases strength of memory. Supports the narrative rehearsal hypothesis. People add information that helps them make sense out of the memory, but the added information may not be accurate. The added information makes the memory more meaningful. Memory is constructive or reconstructive. Source misattribution. I.e., people learn something after an event but they come to believe that they learned it while experiencing the event. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Question: Is there a Special Mechanism for FBM's?

Do Flashbulb Memories (FBM’s) Involve Special Cognitive Mechanisms?
Bottom line: No convincing evidence that FBM's involve special mechanisms, although there are ways in which they tend to be unusual. Encoding is often associated with stronger emotion, more vivid detail, events are more personally important. It is likely that FBM’s are retrieved multiple times. These retrievals lead to strengthened associations with other facts and ideas. Consolidation and reconstruction of memory over time. Over time, people have higher confidence in the accuracy of FBM's than everyday memories from the same time period. FBM's appear more vivid and more clear at time of retrieval. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 A Schema for "Office Rooms"

Memory Schemas, Source Monitoring & Eyewitness Memory

Outline Finish: Flashbulb memories Memory schemas Source monitoring Eyewitness memory Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Goldstein Fig. 8.8. Talarico & Rubin (2003)
Number of details correctly recalled for everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Confidence in the accuracy of everyday & flashbulb memories as a function of days after the event. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Summary of Results Depicted in these Graphs (Redundant)

Talarico Fig 1a Figure 1 from Talarico, J. M., & Rubin, D. C. (2003). Confidence, not consistency, characterizes flashbulb memories. Psychological Science, 14, Number of correct details diminishes over time for both flashbulb and everyday memories. Belief in the accuracy of memories diminishes over time for everyday memories but remains high for FBM's. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Does Confidence Remains High While Accuracy Diminishes Over Time?

Why do people have high confidence in the accuracy of FBM's even though the accuracy declines?
People keep thinking about flashbulb memories. Increases strength of memory. Supports the narrative rehearsal hypothesis. People add information that helps them make sense out of the memory, but the added information may not be accurate. The added information makes the memory more meaningful. Memory is constructive or reconstructive. Source misattribution. I.e., people learn something after an event but they come to believe that they learned it while experiencing the event. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Question: Is there a Special Mechanism for FBM's?

Do Flashbulb Memories (FBM’s) Involve Special Cognitive Mechanisms?
Bottom line: No convincing evidence that FBM's involve special mechanisms, although there are ways in which they tend to be unusual. Encoding is often associated with stronger emotion, more vivid detail, events are more personally important. It is likely that FBM’s are retrieved multiple times. These retrievals lead to strengthened associations with other facts and ideas. Consolidation and reconstruction of memory over time. Over time, people have higher confidence in the accuracy of FBM's than everyday memories from the same time period. FBM's appear more vivid and more clear at time of retrieval. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 A Schema for "Office Rooms"

Brewer & Treyens (1981) : A Schema for "Office Room"
Schemas: Representations of typical characteristics of objects, situations or events. Subject asked to wait in this office room for about 30 seconds prior to start of experiment. Subject does not know that memory will be tested for this room. Subject is moved to another room. Recall test – What do you remember about the waiting room? 464 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Predictions & Findings of "Office Room" Experiment

Brewer & Treyens (1981): A Schema for "Office Room"
Predictions: Memory will be biased .... .... towards recall of schema consistent information; .... and against recall of schema inconsistent information Findings: Correct recall: Desk, chairs, shelves Intrusion Errors: Books on shelves Omission Errors: Skull, small doll These results show the constructive nature of memory. We use schemas to fill in the gaps in our memory. Schema consistent Schema inconsistent Advantages & Disadvantages of Schematic Influences on Memory 465 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Schemas and Scripts Influence Memory
Memory can include information not actually experienced but inferred because it is expected and consistent with the schema "Scripts" are like schemas except that a script is a typical sequence of events or actions. We have scripts for how to pay for our purchases in a check out line at the market. We have scripts for how to greet a respected visitor to our home. Memory is constructive. The constructive property of memory is generally advantageous, but it can lead to errors or “false memories” Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Roediger/McDermott/Deese Experiment – Same as Coglab

False Memory 1 Downloaded with permission from Thomas Pusateri’s website, December 2004. The version of the demonstration shown here slightly modifies the original. Demonstration of the Deese (1959), Roediger & McDermott (1995) false memory paradigm. The False Memory experiment was assigned to Psych 355 students (CogLab). 467 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Instructions for the Experiment

Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
You will see a list of 19 words, one at a time. Do whatever you can to remember as many words as you can. At the end of the list, write down as many of the words as you can recall. Note to Instructor: The following stimulus slides are self timed (1.8 seconds/slide), so just let them run. You don’t have to advance the slides. ALL-PURPOSE MEMORY DEMONSTRATION 1 (POSSIBLE FALSE MEMORY FOR SLEEP) This demonstration is an adaptation of a workshop presentation by Douglas Bernstein. He could not locate the original source of this demonstration, which was introduced to him by one of his teaching assistants in introductory psychology. The instructions appear on the first slide. Advance to the second slide to present the list of words for two seconds per word. After the last word, students are instructed to recall all of the words; this slide is timed for forty-five seconds followed by a drum roll. On the last slide, poll the students for recall of certain words in the list. Here is a brief explanation of each memory effect, with some elaboration you may use in your discussion: Primacy effect. The words “bed” and “clock” were the first two words in this list. Most students will recall these words due to the greater opportunity for rehearsing these words. Recency effect. The words “snore” and “pillow” were the last two words in the list. Most students will recall these words because they are still in their immediate attention (short-term memory) during recall. You may wish to ask students how recall for these words could be disrupted. The answer is by introducing a distractor task after presentation of the list. Repetition/Rehearsal. Words in the middle of a list are often not well-recalled, however, most students will recall the word “night”. Ask students if they can recall how often the word “night” appeared in the list. It is likely that many students will indicate correctly that the word was repeated three times in the list. Repetition facilitates recall because it permits additional opportunity to rehearse this word compared to other words in the middle of the list. Distinctiveness. Most of the words are associated with each other. However, one word in the list, “artichoke” is so different than the others that it is often recalled, even though it appears in the middle of the list. You may discuss this as an example of deeper processing of a word that is distinctive, salient, and unusual. Semantic Organization. First ask the volunteers if they recalled the word “toss”. Then, ask those who recalled “toss” whether they followed recall of the word “toss” immediately by recall of the word “turn”. There will be several students who recall the words as a pair, even though they are separated in the list and “turn” precedes “toss”. You may discuss this as a form of semantic organization or elaboration of memory. The words are very highly associated and easily connected together in students’ recall. “False Memory”. Ask the whole class if anyone recalled the word “sleep”. Ask those students who recalled this word to attempt to recall where in the list the word appeared. Was it in the first half or the last half of the list? Most students who recall the word will report that they “know” it is in the list, but they cannot “remember” exactly where the word appeared. This demonstrates that constructive processes in memory may create memories of events that did not occur (“false memories”). 468 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Start of the Stimulus Sequence

BED 469 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

CLOCK 470 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

DREAM 471 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

NIGHT 472 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

TURN 473 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

MATTRESS 474 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

SNOOZE 475 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

NOD 476 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

TIRED 477 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

STOVE 479 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

INSOMNIA 480 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

REST 481 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

TOSS 482 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

ALARM 484 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

NAP 485 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

SNORE 486 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

PILLOW 487 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

************************************************ WRITE DOWN THE WORDS YOU SAW ************************************************ Psych 355 students are already familiar with this experiment from CogLab. Actually you can skip this step, but this is what subjects are asked to do. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Correct List of Words & Types of Erors 488

Here are the stimulus words in the presented order:
BED, CLOCK, DREAM, NIGHT, TURN, MATTRESS, SNOOZE, NOD, TIRED, NIGHT, STOVE, INSOMNIA, REST, TOSS, NIGHT, ALARM, NAP, SNORE, PILLOW Types of Memory Errors Intrusion errors: Words not on the list that you thought were there. Common intrusion error: Sleep related words like: SLEEP, DROWSY or FATIGUE Omission errors: Words on the list that you didn't recall. Common omission error: Non-sleep related word like: STOVE Interpretation of Experimental Results 489 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Interpretation of Results for the Roediger/McDermott/Deese Paradigm
Almost all of the words are sleep-related ("going to sleep" schema). The Roediger/McDermott/Deese paradigm is designed to cause subjects to make two kinds of errors: Schema-consistent intrusion errors. In the preceding example, the schema was something like "objects or actions that are related to sleeping." For this example, schema-consistent intrusion errors would be words like: "sleep", "drowsy", "pajamas", etc. Schema-inconsistent omission errors. The word STOVE was the only non-sleep related word in the list. Subjects are more likely to omit STOVE than other words. Schema-consistent intrusion errors & schema-inconsistent omission errors provide evidence for the constructive (or reconstructive) nature of memory. In general, people will remember experiences in a way that creates a more coherent story. 490 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Advantages & Disadvantages of Memory Schemas

Constructive Memory Advantages Disadvantages
Helps to create a meaningful narrative about our life experiences. Allows us to fill in the gaps in our knowledge. Speeds up how quickly we can interpret or respond to a situation. Sometimes our memories are based on expectations and not on the actual experience. Schemas help organize experiences into "chunks" that are easier to manipulate in working memory, and easier to associate with similar experiences. Sometimes we make errors without realizing it. Intro to Eyewitness Testimony

Eyewitness Testimony Basic source of evidence in the Anglo-American legal system. Historically more trusted than circumstantial evidence. Of 341 people who were exonerated by DNA evidence as of 2012, eyewitness testimony played a role in 75% of the original convictions. (Quinlivan et al., 2009; Scheck et al., 2000). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Sources of Error in Eyewitness Testimony

Source Monitoring & Source Misattribution
Source monitoring Retaining a memory of the source of a memory What was the source of this memory? Source misattribution - attributing a memory to one source when the actual source was something else. Example: My friends tell me about a large building fire that they witnessed. Years later I believe that I witnessed this fire along with my friends. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Source Misattribution & Errors in Eyewitness Memory

Source Misattribution is One Cause of Erroneous Eyewitness Memory
Source misattribution can cause errors in eyewitness testimony. A familiar face is more likely to be falsely identified as a perpetrator of a crime (witness thinks the familiarity is due to seeing this person commit the crime). Example: A woman was attacked in her home shortly after watching a TV show in which a psychologist, David Thompson, was interviewed. Later she identified David Thompson as the attacker. (He had an alibi, the interview on the TV show.) Remember/Know Distinction: Feeling of familiarity ≠ Recollection but people may say that they "remember" Mr. X when Mr. X is familiar. * Ironically, David Thompson studies memory distortion. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Ross et al. Experimental Study of Source Misattribution

Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein Robber Not Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Experimental View male teacher reading to students Both Conditions View female teacher getting robbed by a man. Robber Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Control View female teacher reading to students Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Same Slide with Emphasis Rectangles

Source Misattribution & Eyewitness Identification
See Figure 8.17 in Goldstein Robber Not Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Experimental View male teacher reading to students Both Conditions View female teacher getting robbed by a man. Robber Present Try to pick robber from photospread; male teacher present Control View female teacher reading to students Ross, D. F., Ceci, S. J., Dunning, D., & Toglia, M. P. (1994). Unconscious transference and mistaken identity: When a witness misidentifies a familiar but innocent person. Journal of Applied Psychology, 79, Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Experimental Results

Robber not in photospread % Identification of Male Teacher
Results of Ross et al. (1994) Figure 8.20: Ross et. al. (1994) 60% id male teacher when robber not in photospread. 20% id teacher in control group. 18% id male teacher when robber in photospread. 10% id teacher in control group. Source misattributions can cause mistaken identifications. Robber not in photospread Robber in photospread E C % Identification of Male Teacher E = Experimental Condition = View male teacher at stage 1 C = Control Condition = View female teacher at stage 1 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Misinformation Effect

Overview of the Misinformation Effect
MPI = Misleading Postevent Information Subject sees a video, or a slide sequence, or reads a story. I'll call this "the video." The video usually depicts a crime. After seeing the video, the subject is asked questions about it. For some subjects, the questions contain misinformation (a.k.a. MPI or false assumptions). Subjects receive a memory test. A misinformation effect is found if subjects who heard the misleading questions remember the video in a way that is consistent with the question and not the video. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Introduce Loftus & Palmer - Car Crash

MPI: Leading Questions Can Produce Memory Biases
Loftus & Palmer (1974) Subjects see film of an auto accident. Questions contained alternative descriptions of the accident. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Results: Effect of the Biased Questions

Leading Question Can Produce Memory Biases
Verb Estimated Speed smashed 40.8 collided 39.3 bumped 38.1 hit 34.0 contacted 31.8 Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Loftus & Palmer Result for Broken Glass

Leading Questions Can Produce False Inferences
One week later, subjects were asked: Did you see any broken glass? Actually, there was no broken glass in the film. Yes No "smashed" 32 68 "hit" 14 86 control* 12 88 * The control group were not asked about the speed of the car (no misinformation; no correct information). UW: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Win '12 Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories

Feedback Can Increase Confidence in Erroneous Memories
Subjects viewed video of crime. Subjects shown a photo array that did not contain the perpetrator of the crime. All subjects picked someone from the photo array. (!!!) Confirming Feedback Condition: "Good, you identified the suspect." No Feedback Condition Disconfirming Feedback Condition: "Actually the suspect was number __." Later when asked how confident they were in their identifications, subjects were most confident with confirming feedback. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Line Ups versus Show Ups

Wednesday, 9 May, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here

Lineups versus Show-Ups – What Are They?
Classic showup: Police show only one person to a witness, often somebody who was caught near the scene of the crime. Question: "Is he the man you saw?" Classic lineup: Police show 7 people to the witness: Question: "Do you see the perpetrator in the line up?" Improved showup = sequential showup: Police tell the witness, "We're going to show you a series of men (of unstated length). Stop me when you see the perpetrator." Contrary to most people's expectations, show ups are more accurate than line ups. Why are showups more accurate than lineups? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Lineups & Showups Differ as Cognitive Tasks

Cognitive Differences Between Lineups and Showups
Classic showup: Witness asks himself/herself: "Did I see this person do the crime?" Classic lineup: Witness assumes that the perpetrator is in the lineup. Witness asks himself/herself: "Which of these men looks the most like the person that I saw?" Sequential presentation = sequential showup (Goldstein refers to this a sequential presentation) With each person, the witness asks himself/herself: "Am I sure that this is the person who I saw do the crime?" Lindsey & Wells (1985) found that the sequential showup greatly reduced false id when the perpetrator was not present (43% vs 17%) Sequential showups slightly reduced the rate of true id when perpetrator is present. Mistake! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory - END

Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory
Use a sequential showup (Goldstein would call it a sequential presentation). In a showup, use non-suspects who are similar to a suspect. Inform witness that the perpetrator may not be in a showup. Administrator of showup should not know who is the suspect. Get confidence rating immediately after the initial identification. Avoid giving feedback to the witness after the lineup Use cognitive interview techniques; do not prompt the witness with leading questions. See Wikipedia article on cognitive interview techniques: Cognitive interview technique includes: Have witness mentally reinstate the environment and personal context of the event. Have witness report in depth the details of the event, including details that may not seem important or relevant. Describe the event in several different temporal orders. Report the event from various perspectives, e.g., what could another witness see or hear? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 END

Introduction to Categorization Theory (Goldstein Ch 9: Knowledge)

Outline Finish: Eyewitness memory Introduction to categorization theory (Goldstein's chapter 9 is named "Knowledge) Categorization – what is it? How are objects placed into categories? The definitional theory of categorization Problems with the definitional theory of categorization Prototype theory of categorization Exemplar theory of categorization Lecture probably ends here Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Line Ups Versus Show Ups

Lineups versus Show-Ups – What Are They?
Classic showup: Police show only one person to a witness, often somebody who was caught near the scene of the crime. Question: "Is he the man you saw?" Classic lineup: Police show 7 people to the witness: Question: "Do you see the perpetrator in the line up?" Improved showup = sequential showup: Police tell the witness, "We're going to show you a series of men (of unstated length). Stop me when you see the perpetrator." Contrary to most people's expectations, show ups are more accurate than line ups. Why are showups more accurate than lineups? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Why Lineups & Showups Differ as Cognitive Tasks

Cognitive Differences Between Lineups and Showups
Classic showup: Witness asks himself/herself: "Did I see this person do the crime?" Classic lineup: Witness assumes that the perpetrator is in the lineup. Witness asks himself/herself: "Which of these men looks the most like the person that I saw?" Sequential presentation = sequential showup (Goldstein refers to this a sequential presentation) With each person, the witness asks himself/herself: "Am I sure that this is the person who I saw do the crime?" Lindsey & Wells (1985) found that the sequential showup greatly reduced false id when the perpetrator was not present (43% vs 17%) Sequential showups slightly reduced the rate of true id when perpetrator is present. Mistake! Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory

Recommendations for Improving Eyewitness Memory
Use a sequential showup (Goldstein would call it a sequential presentation). In a showup, use non-suspects who are similar to a suspect. Inform witness that the perpetrator may not be in a showup. Administrator of showup should not know who is the suspect. Get confidence rating immediately after the initial identification. Avoid giving feedback to the witness after the lineup Use cognitive interview techniques; do not prompt the witness with leading questions. See Wikipedia article on cognitive interview techniques: Cognitive interview technique includes: Have witness mentally reinstate the environment and personal context of the event. Have witness report in depth the details of the event, including details that may not seem important or relevant. Describe the event in several different temporal orders. Report the event from various perspectives, e.g., what could another witness see or hear? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Outline of Categorization Topic

End of the Memory Topic The slides that follow this slide pertain to Goldstein’s Chapter 9 (Knowledge; I refer to it as the categorization topic). Chapter 9 will not be on Midterm 2. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Outline of Categorization Topic
Concepts, categorization, and knowledge Categorization – what is it? How are objects placed into categories? The definitional theory of categorization Problems with the definitional theory of categorization Prototype theory of categorization Exemplar theory of categorization Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Categorization – Examples

Categorization – Examples
Categorize objects in the physical world. E.g., tables, chairs, cars, dogs, cats, trees, water, etc. Categorize types of people. E.g., policemen, teachers, students, politician, etc. E.g., friend, enemy, helpful, inconsiderate, smart, talkative, etc. E.g., white, black, asian, ...., catholic, muslim, hindu, ...., Abstract categories. "___ is a crime", e.g., theft is a crime; complaining is not a crime. "___ is a relative of mine." (Kinship is an abstraction.) "credit" in the financial sense is an abstraction. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Inferences with Categorizations

Inferences with Categories
Example of Reasoning with Categories Type of Inference I see a dog and say, "That's a mammal/dog/collie." Categorize an object (put it into a category) A friend tells me, "I have a collie," and I think to myself, "I hope she doesn't mind dog hair on her clothes." Draw an inference from a categorization to other properties of the object. A friend tells me that fluorescent light can wreck a cd that contains data. I think to myself, I wonder if the same thing is true of dvd's? Draw an inference from a property of one category to a possible property of another category. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Categories Imply a Lot of Other Information – Cat Example

Knowing the Category Provides a Lot of Information
Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definition of Categorization

Categorization – What is it?
Goldstein book: Categorization "is the process by which things are placed into groups called categories." This is an incomplete definition. Below is a better definition. The psychology of categorization has to do with: how we assign objects or events to categories; the structure of knowledge that we use to organize our knowledge of categories (category structure); the inferences that we draw when we learn that an object or event belongs to a category; how we learn new categories (Children learn new categories frequently; adults learn new categories from time to time) These are all examples of semantic knowledge. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Distinction Btwn Concepts & Categories

Categories and Concepts
The word "concept" emphasizes knowledge of relationships between concepts. E.g., the concept of a cat includes knowledge of its biology, appearance, behavior, its relation to human life styles, etc. Example: mokita (Kivila language) is “truth we all know but agree not to talk about” (Wikipedia) Concept of "time" includes knowledge of all sorts of temporal relationships, e.g., relations of "before" and "after." Related relations and concepts s of "duration," "instant", "concurrency", "distant past," "recent past." The word "category" emphasizes the set of all things that are joined together under a common label. E.g., every cat is a member of the category "cat"; every dog and every cat is a member of the category "carnivore." Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Relationship between Knowledge and Categories

Categorization and Knowledge
Goldstein calls the chapter topic “Knowledge” – why? This is a hypothesis – not a fact. IMO: The structure of categories and the structure of concepts are related to the structure of knowledge, but none is identical to any of the others. ? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Definitional Approach to Category Membership

Definitional Approach to Category Membership
Originated with Aristotle. According to the definitional approach, category membership is determined by checking a list of necessary and sufficient features. Example: Definition of a tea cup. Concrete object Concave Can hold liquids Has a handle Can be used to drink hot liquids Properties 4 and 5 are debatable. Chinese tea cups. Lacquer cups. If you omit 4 and 5, then there are many objects (bowls) that satisfy Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Problems with the Definitional Approach

What Do These "Chairs" All Have in Common?
Maybe there is nothing that ALL chairs have in common, ..... but they all share a family resemblance. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Problems with the Definitional Approach to Categorization

Problems with the Definitional Approach
How do we discover the definitions? For many categories, it is doubtful that necessary and sufficient features exist. Example: If we call someone "friendly," what are necessary and sufficient features for calling someone friendly? The definitional approach does not explain important aspects of human categorization. E.g., it does not explain typicality effects in categorization response time. See the Rosch color priming study to be described later. E.g., it does not explain typicality effects in semantic memory experiments (Goldstein calls this the "sentence verification technique"). Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Prototype Theory of Categorization

Prototype Theory of Categorization
Cognitive psychologists were dissatisfied with the definitional approach to representing cognitive categories. Eleanor Rosch: Categories are organized around a category prototype. Category prototype represents typical features of category members. Family resemblances. Next: Digression regarding family resemblances Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Family Resemblance Idea - Background

Family Resemblance Idea - Background
Composite A "family resemblance" photograph – popular in late 19th & early 20th century. Take multiple exposure photo of all family members. Only the common features are retained. The photo looks like everyone in the family, but is not any one person. Images downloaded from: Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Continuation of Present Slide with Composite Image

Family Resemblance Idea - Background
Composite A "family resemblance" photograph – popular in late 19th & early 20th century. Take multiple exposure photo of all family members. Only the common features are retained. The photo looks like everyone in the family, but is not any one person. Ludwig Wittgenstein – early 20th century philosopher. Proposed that the structure of a concept is like a family resemblance photo. Images downloaded from: Paul Wittgenstein Concert pianist Lost right arm in WW I Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Family Resemblance in Concept Theory

Thursday, 10 May, 2018: The Lecture Ended Here

Family Resemblance & Concepts
Famous example: Wittgenstein says that there are no necessary and sufficient conditions for something to be a "game", but there is a family resemblance among games. Playing checkers or bridge; playing football; skipping rope; children play acting as if, e.g., having a tea party; trash talking Similarly, there are no necessary & sufficient conditions for something to be a chair, but there is a family resemblance among chairs. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Return to Slide Showing the Prototype Theory of Categorization

Prototype Theory of Categorization
Eleanor Rosch proposed: cognitive representations of categories are like family resemblances. categories have prototypes – category structure is created by the relationship between category members and the category prototype. Prototypes (mental representation of a concept) are like family resemblance photographs – they retain the typical characteristics of many particular examples. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18 Examples of Birds & the Prototypical Bird Image

Review for Midterm 2 Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Instructor: Roy Seo 05/11/2018: Section 7 Note: This Powerpoint presentation may contain macros that I wrote to help me create the slides. The macros aren’t needed to view the slides. You can disable or delete the macros without any change to the presentation.

Modal Model of Memory Figure 1 shows an outline of the modal model of memory, but all of the labels have been removed. Can you fill in the labels? See answer on Goldstein's Figure 5.2, p. 122. Can you briefly describe the main function of each component? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Capacity Limits of STM Approximately what is the limit in the amount of information that can be retained in short-term memory (STM)? Approximately what is the limit on the duration for which information can be retained in short-term memory? What evidence demonstrates that STM has limits on the amount and duration retention in STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Interference and Decay in STM
What are proactive and retroactive interference? What is the difference between a theory of forgetting that hypothesizes that it is caused by decay and a theory of forgetting that hypothesizes that it is caused by interference? What evidence suggests that proactive interference causes forgetting from STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Recoding and Chunking Define recoding. Define chunking. Give examples.
How do recoding and chunking affect the amount of information that can be retained in STM? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

What is the relationship between these two theoretical constructs: Short-term memory (STM) and working memory (WM)? Are they two separate parts of the memory system? What features do the STM model and the WM model have in common and what features are different in these models? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Working Memory What evidence shows that WM has both a PL and a VSP? In other words, how do we know that not all functions of WM are performed by the PL alone (no VSP) or the VSP alone (no PL)? Describe Brook's visual scanning experiment. Describe the two stimulus types. Describe the two response modes. What was the pattern of response, slower or faster, in each combination of stimulus type and response mode? Why was the pattern of response indicative of the hypothesis that PL and VSP are two different components of WM? What is the function of the central executive in the working memory (WM) model? Can you list some of the main functions of the central executive? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Articulatory Suppression
What is articulatory suppression? Describe one experiment that uses articulatory suppression. Discuss how articulatory suppression is used to show that people rehearse information in PL. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Components of Long-Term Memory
Name the missing components in the diagram displayed above. What are the functions of these components? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve
% Recalled Figure 6.3 Serial Position Curve What is the serial position curve? Describe the typical shape of the serial position curve. What is the X axis on the graph? What is the Y axis on the graph? What causes the primacy effect? What causes the recency effect? What is the evidence for the standard explanation of the primacy effect and the recency effect? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Implicit Memory How does implicit memory differ from explicit memory?
How does the forgetting curve differ between implicit memory and explicit memory? Describe the procedure in the word fragment completion test (Goldstein calls it the "word completion test"). Why is this called a test of implicit memory and not a test of explicit memory? Patients with Korsakoff's syndrome show a different pattern of forgetting on an explicit memory test (recall) and an implicit memory test (word fragment completion). How do Korsakoff patients differ from normal controls on recall and WFC? Sometimes we have the feeling that we have met someone before but we cannot remember when or where we met this person. Discuss how this is related to implicit and explicit memory. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Strength of Memories in LTM
Suppose you are studying for a test that will be given in 7 days. What strategies can you adopt in your study habits that will increase the chances that you will remember the material at the test? Why would associations that you generate yourself in relation to some material that you are studying be more effective at assisting future recall than associations that are suggested to you by someone else? Why does testing a person's knowledge of a subject improve their knowledge of the subject, even if the answers to the questions are not given to the person who is tested? Compare the effect of testing on some material versus spending an equal amount of time rereading the material. Do testing and rereading have different effects in the short-term (5 minute delay) and in the long-term (2 day or 7 day delay)? Other ways to improve the chances that a memory will be retrieved when it is needed on some future occasion? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Memory Consolidation What is consolidation in LTM? What does reactivation refer to and how is it related to consolidation? Explain how the role of the hippocampus in episodic retrieval changes as a memory starts with very little consolidation, and then acquires increased consolidation over time (assuming that one keeps thinking about this memory). Describe how a rat that has previously received fear conditioning to an electric shock can lose the fear conditioning by a special treatment using drugs. Describe how the stress and anxiety that accompanies the recall of a traumatic memory can be diminished by a treatment that is analogous to the fear deconditioning in rats. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Everyday Memory What is the reminiscence bump? What are some proposed explanations of the period in people's lives in which there is typically a reminiscence bump? What is a flashbulb memory? What is meant by the "constructive nature of memory" (this is the title of the section that starts on p. 218) List some ways that the constructive nature of memory can lead to memory errors. List some ways that having a constructive memory is advantageous. What are schemas or scripts in memory? Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

Eyewitness Memory There is more than one reason why people who have witnessed a crime make errors in eyewitness testimony. List some of the reasons why errors in eyewitness memory occur. What is source monitoring in memory? What is source misattribution? Describe a situation where source misattribution of a memory would be likely to happen. Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '18

End of Lectures: 04 – 2 to Psych 355, Miyamoto, Spr '15

Combined Lecture Slides: Weeks 4 – 7 Topics in Goldstein Chapters 5 - 8 Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2018 Instructor: John Miyamoto Combined.

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Combined Lecture Slides: Weeks 4 – 7 Topics in Goldstein Chapters 5 - 8 Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2018 Instructor: John Miyamoto Combined.

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Presentation on theme: "Combined Lecture Slides: Weeks 4 – 7 Topics in Goldstein Chapters 5 - 8 Psychology 355: Cognitive Psychology Spring 2018 Instructor: John Miyamoto Combined."— Presentation transcript:

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