1. UNIT 7 - COGNITION Module 31 – Studying and Building Memories
Module 32 – Memory Storage and Retrieval
Module 33 – Forgetting, Memory Construction, and Memory Improvement
Module 34 – Thinking, Concepts, and Creativity
Module 35 – Solving Problems and Making Decisions
Module 36 – Thinking and Language

2. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Memory storage is never automatic; it always takes effort
False
When people go around a circle saying their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person directly in front of them
True
Memory aids (for example, those that use imagery and devices for organization) are no more useful than simple rehearsal of information
Only a few people have any type of photographic memory

3. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are still limited in the number of permanent memories we can form
When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when intoxicated
The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to memory
The confidence of eyewitnesses is an important predictor of their accuracy

4. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Memory storage is never automatic; it always takes effort
False
When people go around a circle saying their names, their poorest memories are for what was said by the person directly in front of them
True
Memory aids (for example, those that use imagery and devices for organization) are no more useful than simple rehearsal of information
Only a few people have any type of photographic memory

5. Introduction: Fact or Falsehood?
Although our capacity for storing information is large, we are still limited in the number of permanent memories we can form
False
When people learn something while intoxicated, they recall it best when intoxicated
True
The hour before sleep is a good time to commit information to memory
The confidence of eyewitnesses is an important predictor of their accuracy

7. Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)

8. Nickerson & Adams’ Penny Test (1979)

9. 31.1 – Define memory.
Memory: refers to the mental processes needed to acquire, retain, and retrieve information.
An active system that receives information from the senses, puts it into a usable form, organizes it while storing it away, and then retrieves it from storage
Any indication that learning has persisted over time
The mind’s storehouse with all accumulated learning

10. 31.1 – Define memory. Three big questions…
How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in memory?
How is information pulled back out of memory?

11. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.
Memory results from three distinct processes: 1) Encoding: includes the process of acquiring and entering information into memory. 2) Storage: involves maintaining the encoded information over a period of time so it can be retrieved later. 3) Retrieval: refers to the process of accessing the stored information.

12. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.
Entering data through a keyboard
Saving data to a flash drive
Displaying data on a monitor

13. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.
Models of Memory:
1) Parallel Distributed Processing Model: a model in which new information is integrated with existing memories, resulting in a change in a person’s overall knowledge base. These newly integrated memories expand and improve the person’s cognitive ability and enable him/her to have a better understanding of the environment. This integration is possible through the formation and connections of neural networks that occur between units of information. Each unit of information is connected with another piece of information. These neural networks are made stronger as each bit of information is associated – or experienced at the same time – with another type of information. When connections are strengthened, parallel processing is possible. Parallel processing enables multiple networks in the brain to process different kinds of sensory information simultaneously.

14. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.
2) Information Processing Model (Attkinson and Shiffrin Theory): a model in which memory must be processed through three stages: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory. Each stage is distinct, with the amount of information that can be stored, how long the information can be stored, and how the stored information is used varying.
Sensory Memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.
Short-Term Memory: activated memory that holds a few items briefly.
Long-Term Memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

15. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.
3) Modified version of the three-stage processing model of memory:
Working Memory: a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
a) some information skips the first two stages and enters long-term memory automatically. b) since we cannot focus on all the sensory information received, we select information that is important to us and process it into our working memory – short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of information.

16. 31.2 – Explain how psychologists describe the human memory system.

17. 31.3 – Distinguish between explicit and implicit memories.
Explicit Memory (Declarative Memory): Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare”. New and unusual information requires attention and effort.
1) Episodic Information: includes personal memories
2) Semantic Information: involves general knowledge about your environment
Implicit Memory (Nondeclarative Memory): Retention independent of conscious recollection. Some information is automatically processed. It skips encoding and jumps directly to storage. Contain procedural information, like skills.

18. 31.4 – Identify the information we process automatically.
Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as . . .
a) space – while reading a textbook, you automatically encode the place of a picture on a page.
b) time – we unintentionally note the events that take place in a day.
c) frequency – you effortlessly keep track of thanks that happen to you.
Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

19. 31.5 – Explain how sensory memory works.
-Researchers have found that people have a distinct sensory memory
for each sense.
Iconic Memory – visual sensory memory – retained for less than a second
Echoic Memory – auditory memory – tends to be retained for a few seconds

20. 31.6 – Describe the capacity of our short-term and working memory.
Short-Term Memory: receives information from sensory memory and then uses information stored in long-term memory to understand and associated the new information.
Working Memory: refers to the information that a person is actively “working with” in short-term memory.

21. 31.6 – Describe the capacity of our short-term and working memory.
The duration of short-term memory is about seconds. Maintenance rehearsal, repeating a unit of information over and over, makes it possible to keep the information in short-term memory for a longer period of time.
Short-term memory capacity is also limited. George Miller discovered that short- term memory is limited to a “magic number seven plus or minus two”. This means that the average capacity of short-term memory is limited to seven unites of information plus or minus two units. When a person’s short-term memory reaches of exceeds seven items, come of those items will be “bumped” out of short-term memory.

22. 31.6 – Describe the capacity of our short-term and working memory.
Short-term memory capacity is also limited. George Miller discovered that short- term memory is limited to a “magic number seven plus or minus two”. This means that the average capacity of short-term memory is limited to seven unites of information plus or minus two units. When a person’s short-term memory reaches of exceeds seven items, come of those items will be “bumped” out of short-term memory.

23. 31.7 - Describe the effortful processing strategies that help us remember new information.
Effortful learning usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.
Maintenance Rehearsal: repeating a unit of information over and over.
Elaborate Rehearsal: the application of personal meaning and understanding to help ensure that the information is encoded into long-term memory as demonstrated through higher-order thinking skills.

24. 31.7 - Describe the effortful processing strategies that help us remember new information.
Memory Effects (Herman Ebbinghaus)
Spacing Effect: we retain information better when we rehearse
over time.
a) Massed Practice – “cramming” practice
b) Distributed Practice – spaced out over time practice
c) Testing Effect – enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than
simply rereading, information.
2) Serial Position Effect: recall is generally better for first and last
item on a list, but poor for middle items.

25. 31.7 - Describe the effortful processing strategies that help us remember new information.
An example of an effortful processing strategy is chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

26. 31.7 - Describe the effortful processing strategies that help us remember new information.
Mnemonics: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.
Visual imagery
Peg word system
ROY G BIV
Acronym - HOMES
Hierarchy: complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories.

27. 31.8 – Describe the levels of processing and their effect on encoding.
Shallow Processing: encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
Deep Processing: encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.
a) making material personally meaningful
b) self-reference effect: information deemed “relevant to me” is processed more deeply and remain more accessible.
The amount remembered depends both on the time spent learning and on your making it meaningful for deep processing.