1. Chapter 10: Personality: Theory and Measurement

2. Learning Outcomes
Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of personality.
Explain the trait perspective and the “Big Five” trait model.

3. Learning Outcomes
Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality.
Describe the humanistic-existential perspective on personality.

4. Learning Outcomes
Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality.
Describe the different kinds of tests psychologists use to measure personality.

5. What is Personality?
Personality consists of the reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another
personality – the reasonably stable patterns of emotions, motives, and behavior that distinguish one person from another

6. The Psychodynamic Perspective
LO1 Describe the psychoanalytical perspective and how it contributed to the study of personality.

7. Psychodynamic Theory Sigmund Freud
Personality characterized by conflict
Conflict is first external, then internalized
Our behavior is the result of these inner conflicts
psychodynamic theory – Sigmund Freud’s perspective, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and conflicts as forces that determine behavior

8. Sigmund Freud’s Theory of Psychosexual Development
Three levels of awareness
Conscious, preconscious, unconscious
Unconscious urges are kept below the surface by repression
Psychoanalysis
Form of therapy used to explore the unconscious mind

9. The Human Iceberg According to Freud
Figure 10.1: The Human Iceberg According to Freud - According to psychodynamic theory, only the tip of human personality rises above the surface of the mind into conscious awareness. Material in the preconscious can become conscious if we direct our attention to it. Unconscious material tends to remain shrouded in mystery.
Go to 4ltrpress.cengage.com/psych to access an interactive version of this figure.

10. Structure of Personality
Three psychic structures of personality
Id – pleasure principle
Ego – reality principle
Defense Mechanisms
Superego – moral principle
Identification
id – the psychic structure, present at birth, that represents physiological drives and is fully unconscious
ego – the second psychic structure to develop, characterized by self-awareness, planning, and delay of gratification
superego – the third psychic structure, which functions as a moral guardian and sets forth high standards for behavior
identification – in psychoanalytic theory, the unconscious adoption of another person’s behavior

11. Stages of Psychosexual Development
Stages: Oral, Anal, Phallic, Latency, Genital
Fixations at any stage are expressed by characteristics of that stage
Oral Fixation
Anal Fixation
psychosexual development - in psychodynamic theory, the process by which libidinal energy is expressed through different erogenous zones during different stages of development
Oral Fixation – desires for oral activities (smoking, overeating, alcohol abuse, nail biting), clinging relationships
Anal Fixation
Anal retentive traits – Excessive use of self control
Anal expulsive traits – Carelessness, messiness, sadism

12. Stages of Psychosexual Development
Oral Stage
Conflict centers on nature and extent of oral gratification
Excessive or insufficient gratification leads to fixation
Anal Stage
Focuses on the control of elimination of waste
Learn to delay gratification – self-control
oral stage – the first stage of psychosexual development, during which gratification is hypothesized to be attained primarily through oral activities
anal stage – the second stage of psychosexual development, when gratification is attained through anal activities

13. Stages of Psychosexual Development
Phallic Stage
Oedipus or Electra complex
Resolved through identification with same sex parent
Latency
Sexual feelings remain unconscious
Genital Stage
Incest taboo
phallic stage – the third stage of psychosexual development, characterized by a shift of libido to the phallic region (from the Greek phallos, referring to an image of the penis; however, Freud used the term phallic to refer both to boys and girls)
Oedipus complex – a conflict of the phallic stage in which the boy wishes to possess his mother sexually and perceives his father as a rival in love
Electra complex – a conflict of the phallic stage in which the girl longs for her father and resents her mother
latency – a phase of psychosexual development characterized by repression of sexual impulses
genital stage – the mature stage of psychosexual development, characterized by preferred expression of libido through intercourse with an adult of the other gender

14. Neo-Freudians Carl Jung - Analytical Psychology
Downplayed importance of sexual instinct
Collective unconscious
Archetypes
analytical psychology – Jung’s psychodynamic theory, which emphasizes the collective unconscious and archetypes
collective unconscious – Jung’s hypothesized store of vague memories that represent the history of humankind

15. Neo-Freudians Alfred Adler – Individual Psychology
People are motivated by an inferiority complex
Drive for superiority
Creative self
individual psychology - Adler’s psychoanalytic theory, which emphasizes feelings of inferiority and the creative self
inferiority complex – feelings of inferiority hypothesized by Adler to serve as a central motivating force
creative self – according to Adler, the self-aware aspect of personality that strives to achieve its full potential

16. Neo-Freudians Karen Horney Argued girls do not feel inferior to boys
Social relationships are more important than unconscious sexual and aggressive impulses

17. Neo-Freudians Erik Erikson – Psychosocial Development
Eight stages named for traits that should develop at each stage
First stage – trust versus mistrust
Goal of adolescence is attainment of ego identity
psychosocial development – Erikson’s theory of personality and development, which emphasizes social relationships and eight stages of growth
ego identity – a firm sense of who one is and what one stands for

18. Evaluation of Psychodynamic Perspective
Shift to examination of problems as having a psychological source
Focused attention on childhood experiences
No evidence for existence of psychic structures
Problems with clinical method for gathering evidence

19. Truth or Fiction?
Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood.
Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. FICTION There is no adequate evidence that biting one’s nails in adulthood or smoking cigarettes signifies an oral fixation.

20. Truth or Fiction?
Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? Biting one’s fingernails or smoking cigarettes is a sign of conflict experienced during early childhood. FICTION There is no adequate evidence that biting one’s nails in adulthood or smoking cigarettes signifies an oral fixation.

21. The Trait Perspective
LO2 Explain the trait perspective and the “Big Five” trait model.

22. What are Traits?
Traits are reasonably stable elements of personality that are inferred from behavior
trait – a relatively stable aspect of personality that is inferred from behavior and assumed to give rise to consistent behavior

23. History of the Trait Perspective
Hippocrates (ca BCE)
Personality depends on the balance of four fluids (humors) in the body
Disease was reflected by imbalance and was restored through bloodletting and vomiting
The four basic fluids: Choleric (yellow bile) associated with quick-tempered disposition; blood with a sanguine (warm, cheerful) disposition; phlegm with a sluggish, calm, cool disposition; and black bile with a melancholic (gloomy, pensive) temperament.

24. Truth or Fiction?
Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression.
Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. TRUE Methods such as blood-letting and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance of humors.

25. Truth or Fiction?
Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Bloodletting and vomiting were once recommended as ways of coping with depression. TRUE Methods such as blood-letting and vomiting were recommended to restore the balance of humors. (Maher & Maher, 1994).

26. History of the Trait Perspective
Charles Spearman – factor analysis
Heritable traits embedded in nervous system
Gordon Allport (1936)
Catalogued 18,000 human traits

27. Hans Eysenck’s Trait Theory
Focus on relationship between
Introversion – Extraversion
Stability – Instability (Neuroticism)
introversion – a trait characterized by intense imagination and the tendency to inhibit impulses
extroversion – a trait characterized by tendencies to be socially outgoing and to express feelings and impulses freely

28. Truth or Fiction?
Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today.
Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. TRUE It is true that some 2,500 years ago, Hippocrates, the Greek physician, devised a way of looking at personality that could be said to remain in use today.

29. Truth or Fiction?
Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? Twenty-five hundred years ago, a Greek physician devised a way of looking at personality that—with a little “tweaking” —remains in use today. TRUE It is true that some 2,500 years ago, Hippocrates, the Greek physician, devised a way of looking at personality that could be said to remain in use today.

30. Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions and Hippocrates’ Personality Types
Figure 10.2: Eysenck’s Personality Dimensions and Hippocrates’ Personality Types - Various personality traits shown in the outer ring fall within the two major dimensions of personality suggested by Hans Eysenck. The inner circle shows how Hippocrates’ four major personality types—choleric, sanguine, phlegmatic, and melancholic—fit within Eysenck’s dimensions.

31. The “Big Five”: The Five-Factor Model
Five basic personality factors
extraversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, agreeableness, openness to experience
Research has shown cross-cultural application and relationship to inborn temperament
Popular means of developing personality “types”

32. The “Big Five”: The Five-Factor Model

33. Truth or Fiction?
Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways.
Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. FICTION There may be several basic personality traits, as suggested by trait theory.

34. Truth or Fiction?
Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? Actually, there are no basic personality traits. We are all conditioned by society to behave in certain ways. FICTION There may be several basic personality traits, as suggested by trait theory.

35. Biology and Traits Biological factors related to traits Temperament
Heredity, Neurotransmitters
Temperament
Shyness and behavioral inhibition
Antisocial personality disorder
antisocial personality disorder – characterized by frequent conflict with society and lack of feelings of guilt or anxiety. Unlike shy children, those who may develop antisocial personality disorder show low responses to threats and stressors.

36. Evaluation of Trait Model
Personality tests have been used to identify “types” related to certain occupations
Trait theory has been more descriptive than explanatory

37. Positive Psychology and Trait Theory
Character Strengths and Virtues
Virtuous traits
Wisdom and knowledge
Courage
Humanity
Justice
Temperance
Transcendence

38. Learning-Theory Perspectives
LO3 Identify the contributions of learning theory to understanding personality.

39. Behaviorism John B. Watson B.F. Skinner Criticism
Focus on determinants of observable behavior, not unseen, undetectable, unconscious forces
B.F. Skinner
Emphasized the effects of reinforcements on behavior
Criticism
Ignored the role of choice and consciousness

40. Social Cognitive Theory
Albert Bandura
Focuses on learning by observation and cognitive processes of personal differences
Person and Situational Variables
social cognitive theory – a cognitively oriented learning theory in which observational learning and person variables such as values and expectancies play major roles in individual differences
Person variables – variables within people, knowledge and skills, ways of interpreting experiences, expectancies, emotions, self-regulatory systems and plans
Situational variables – rewards and punishments

41. Person Variables and Situational Variables in Social-Cognitive Theory
Figure 10.3: Person Variables and Situational Variables in Social-Cognitive Theory - According to social-cognitive theory, person variables and situational variables interact to influence behavior.

42. Social Cognitive Theory
Predicting behavior is based on
Expectancies about the outcome, and
Subjective values perceived about those outcomes
Self-efficacy expectations
Beliefs we can accomplish certain things
Positive self-efficacy = High self esteem

43. Observational Learning
Modeling or cognitive learning
Acquiring knowledge by observing others

44. Biology, Social Cognition, and Gender-Typing
Evolution – natural selection
Biology – prenatal levels of sex hormones
Social cognition – observation
Gender Schema Theory
gender schema
gender typing – the process by which males and female come to display behavior patterns consistent with stereotypical masculine and feminine gender roles.
gender-schema theory – a cognitive view of gender-typing that proposes that once girls and boys become aware of their anatomic sex, they begin to blend their self-expectations and self-esteem with the ways in which they fit the gender roles prescribed in a given culture

45. Evaluation of Learning Perspective
Emphasize observable behaviors which can be measured
Emphasize environmental conditions
Avoid internal variables
Social cognitive theory does not explain self-awareness and genetic variation

46. The Humanistic-Existential Perspective
LO4 Describe the humanistic-existential perspective on personality.

47. What is Humanism? Humanism argues people are capable of Existentialism
free choice
self-fulfillment
ethical behavior
Existentialism
humanism – the view that people are capable of free choice, self-fulfillment, and ethical behavior
existentialism - the view that people are completely free and responsible for their own behavior.

48. Abraham Maslow and the Challenge of Self-Actualization
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Conscious need for self-actualization
self-actualization – in humanistic theory, the innate tendency to strive to realize one’s potential

49. Carl Rogers’ Self Theory
Your ongoing sense of who and what you are
Your sense of how and why you react to the environment
How you choose to act on the environment
Self Theory
Focuses on nature of self and conditions that allow the self to develop freely .

50. Self-Concept and Frames of Reference
Our impressions of ourselves and our evaluations of our adequacy
Frames of Reference
The way in which we look at ourselves and the world

51. Self-Esteem and Positive Regard
Unconditional positive regard
Accept child as having intrinsic merit regardless of present behavior
Conditional positive regard
Accept child only when they behave in the desired manner
Conditions of Worth
Develop in response to conditional positive regard
unconditional positive regard – a persistent expression of esteem for the value of a person, but not necessarily an unqualified acceptance of all of the person’s behaviors
conditional positive regard – judgment of another person’s value on the basis of the acceptability of that person’s behaviors
conditions of worth – standards by which the value of a person is judged

52. Evaluation of Humanistic-Existential Perspective
Focus on conscious experience
Private and subjective
Does not address development of traits and personality types

53. The Sociocultural Perspective
LO5 Describe the sociocultural perspective on personality.

54. Individualism Versus Collectivism
Individualist
Define self in terms of personal identities
Give priority to personal goals
Collectivist
Define self in terms of groups to which you belong
Give priority to the group’s goals
sociocultural perspective – the view that focuses on the roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation, behavior, and mental processes
individualist – a person who defines herself or himself in terms of personal traits and gives priority to her or his own goals
collectivist – a person who defines herself or himself in terms of relationships to other people and groups and gives priority to group goals

55. The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives
Figure 10.4: The Self in Relation to Others from the Individualist and Collectivist Perspectives - To an individualist, the self is separate from other people (part A). To a collectivist, the self is complete only in terms of relationships to other people (part B). (Based on Markus & Kitayama, 1991)

56. Truth or Fiction?
The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country.
Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. FICTION Research evidence suggests that people who do not surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher self-esteem than those who do.

57. Truth or Fiction?
The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? The most well-adjusted immigrants are those who abandon the language and customs of their country of origin and become like members of the dominant culture in their new host country. FICTION Research evidence suggests that people who do not surrender their traditional backgrounds have relatively higher self-esteem than those who do.

58. Acculturation, Adjustment and Self-Esteem
Patterns of Adjustment
Complete assimilation, Bicultural, Complete separation
Highest self-esteem in those who do not surrender their culture
acculturation – the process of adaptation in which immigrants and native groups identify with a new, dominant culture by learning about that culture and making behavioral and attitudinal changes

59. Evaluation of Sociocultural Perspective
Considers roles of ethnicity, gender, culture, and socioeconomic status in personality formation
Enhances our sensitivity to cultural differences and expectations

60. Measurement of Personality
LO6 Describe the different kinds of tests psychologists use to measure personality.

61. Characteristics of Scientific Personality Tests
Validity
Extent to which test measures what it is supposed to measure
Reliability
Stability of one’s test results from one testing to another
Standardization
validity – in psychological testing, the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
reliability – in psychological testing, the consistency or stability of test scores from one testing to another
standardization – in psychological testing, the process by which one obtains and organizes test scores from various population groups, so that the results of a person’s completing a test can be compared to those of others of his or her gender, in his or her age group, and so on

62. Use of Personality Tests
Behavior-rating scales
Classrooms or mental hospitals
Decision making
Occupations, School, Medications
Aptitude and interest scales

63. Truth or Fiction?
Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test.
Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. FICTION Validity scales suggest whether answers actually represent the person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. However, psychologists cannot guarantee that they can detect deception on a personality test.

64. Truth or Fiction?
Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test.
FICTION!
Truth or Fiction? Psychologists can determine whether a person has told the truth on a personality test. FICTION Validity scales suggest whether answers actually represent the person’s thoughts, emotions, and behaviors. However, psychologists cannot guarantee that they can detect deception on a personality test.

65. Objective Tests
Respondents are presented with standardized group of test items in form of questionnaire
Forced-choice format
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI)
Designed to diagnose psychological disorders
objective tests – tests whose items must be answered in a specified, limited manner; tests whose items have concrete answers that are considered correct

66. Truth or Fiction?
There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them.
Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. TRUE The best known of these is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after its originator, Hermann Rorschach.

67. Truth or Fiction?
There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them.
TRUE!
Truth or Fiction? There is a psychological test made up of inkblots, and test-takers are asked to say what the blots look like to them. TRUE The best known of these is the Rorschach inkblot test, named after its originator, Hermann Rorschach.

68. Projective Tests No clear, specified answers Rorschach Inkblot Test
Response that reflects the shape of the inkblot
Sign of adequate reality testing
Response that integrates several features of the blot
Sign of high intellectual functioning
projective test – a psychological test that presents ambiguous stimuli onto which the test taker projects his or her own personality in making a response

69. An Inkblot Test
Figure 10.5: An Inkblot Test – Of all the inkblot tests, the Rorschach is the most widely used projective personality test. What does this inkblot look like to you? What could it be?

70. Projective Tests Thematic Apperception Test
Individuals are asked to make up stories about drawings that are open to various interpretations
Widely used in research on motivation and to determine attitudes toward others