Chapter Objectives Section 1: Theories of Motivation

Chapter Objectives Section 1: Theories of Motivation
Explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways.  Section 2: Biological and Social Motives Understand that biological needs are physiological requirements we must fulfill to survive, whereas social needs are learned through experience.  Section 3: Emotions Describe the three parts of emotions–the physical, cognitive, and behavioral aspects. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Chapter Focus 1

Theories of Motivation
Section 1 Theories of Motivation

Introduction Although all psychology is concerned with what people do and how they do it, research on motivation and emotion focuses on the underlying why of behavior.  Motivation includes the various psychological and physiological factors that cause us to act a certain way at a certain time. motivation an internal state that activates behavior and directs it toward a goal Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-3

Introduction (cont.) Because motivation cannot be observed directly, psychologists, like the rest of us, infer motivation from goal-directed behavior. Behavior is usually energized by many motives that may originate outside or inside of us. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-4

Introduction (cont.) Psychologists explain motivation and why we experience it in different ways.  We will discuss instinct, drive-reduction, incentive, and cognitive theories of motivation. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-6

Instinct Theory In the 1900s, psychologist William McDougall (1908) proposed that humans were motivated by a variety of instincts.  Instincts are natural or inherited tendencies of an organism to make a specific response to certain environmental stimuli without involving reason. instincts innate tendencies that determine behavior Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-7

Drive-Reduction Theory
Something that motivates us moves us to action.  That “something” that motivates us starts with a need and leads to a drive.  A need results from a lack of something desirable or useful.  We have both physiological and psychological needs. need biological or psychological requirement of an organism Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-8

Drive-Reduction Theory (cont.)
A need produces a drive.  A drive is an internal condition that can change over time and orients an individual toward a specific goal or goals.  We have different drives with different goals. drive a state of tension produced by a need that motivates an organism toward a goal Section 1-9

Drive-reduction theory emerged from experimental psychologist Clark Hull, who traced motivation back to basic physiological needs.  Thus, biological needs drive an organism to act.  Homeostasis is the tendency of the body to return to or maintain a balanced state. homeostasis the tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-10

If a behavior reduces the drive, the organism will begin to acquire a habit.  In short, drive-reduction theory states that physiological needs drive an organism to act in either random or habitual ways until its needs are satisfied (until the organism returns to a preset optimal state).  Hull suggested that all human motives–from the desire to acquire property to striving for excellence and seeking affection or amusement–are extensions of basic biological needs. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-11

The results of subsequent experiments suggested, however, that Hull had overlooked some of the more important factors in human–and animal–motivation.  Some drive theorists overlooked the fact that some experiences (such as hugging something or someone soft) are inherently pleasurable.  Many psychologists concluded that there could be no general theory of motivation of the type Hull suggested. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-12

Incentive Theory The drive-reduction theory of motivation emphasizes the internal states of the organism; however, the incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.  An incentive is the object we seek or the result we are trying to achieve through our motivated behavior. incentive an external stimulus, reinforcer, or reward that motivates behavior Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-13

Cognitive Theory Cognitive psychologists seek to explain motivation by looking at forces inside and outside of us that energize us to move.  They propose that we act in particular ways at particular times as a result of extrinsic and intrinsic motivations. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-14

Cognitive Theory (cont.)
Extrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities to reduce biological needs or obtain incentives or external rewards.  Intrinsic motivation refers to engaging in activities because those activities are personally rewarding or because engaging in them fulfills our beliefs or expectations. extrinsic motivation engaging in activities that either reduce biological needs or help us obtain external incentives intrinsic motivation engaging in activities because they are personally rewarding or because they fulfill our beliefs and expectations Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-15

Cognitive Theory (cont.)
In many instances, you engage in an activity because of both extrinsic and intrinsic motivations.  If you are motivated by both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, do you perform more effectively or persistently at a task?  Psychologists have proposed the overjustification effect–when people are given more extrinsic motivation than necessary to perform a task, their intrinsic motivation declines. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 1-16

Click the mouse button to return to the Contents slide.
End of Section 1

Biological and Social Motives
Section 2 Biological and Social Motives

Introduction Eating serves both biological and psychological (social) needs.  People spend much of their lives trying to satisfy biological and social needs.  We choose what, how much, and when to eat because of both biological and social factors. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-3

Introduction (cont.) Why is it, though, that some people seem more motivated than others when it comes to achieving something, such as a win in basketball or success at a job?  Social needs, such as achievement, also influence our lives. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-4

Biological Motives Some behavior is determined by the internal, or physiological, state of the organism.  All organisms, including humans, have built-in regulating systems that work like thermostats to maintain such internal processes as body temperature, the level of sugar in the blood, and the production of hormones.  The tendency of all organisms to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state is known as homeostasis. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-5

Some Biological and Social Needs
Chart 2-1

Hunger Your body requires food to grow, to repair itself, and to store reserves.  To what is it responding?  If the portion of the hypothalamus called the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is stimulated with electrodes, a laboratory animal will begin eating, even if it has just finished a large meal. lateral hypothalamus (LH) the part of the hypothalamus that produces hunger signals Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-6

Hunger (cont.) If the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is stimulated, an animal will slow down or stop eating altogether, even if it has been kept from food for a long period.  This indicates that the VMH provides the “stop” signals: it tells you when you have had enough food. ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) the part of the hypothalamus that can cause one to stop eating Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-7

Hunger (cont.) Other factors also influence your hunger. 
The glucostatic theory suggests that the hypothalamus monitors the amount of glucose, or ready energy, available in the blood.  Another factor affecting eating is the set-point–the weight around which your day-to-day weight tends to fluctuate.  The hypothalamus “interprets” at least three kinds of information: the amount of glucose entering the cells of your body, your set-point, and your body temperature. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-8

Hunger (cont.) Hunger–Other Factors
Besides the biological motives, other factors may be at work when you feel hungry or eat.  Psychosocial factors have a huge impact on our eating habits and sometimes contribute to eating disorders, such as binge eating, eating when depressed, or not eating enough. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-9

Obesity There is a growing body of evidence that a person’s weight is controlled by biological factors.  Stanley Schachter (1971) and his colleagues at Columbia University conducted studies that show that obese people respond to external cues.  Obese people eat not because they are hungry, but because they see something good to eat or their watches tell them it is time to eat. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-10

Obesity (cont.) Schachter argued that overweight people respond to external cues, while normal-weight people respond to internal cues.  His work shows that, for people, even physiological needs like hunger are influenced by complex factors. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-11

Percentage of Overweight Americans
Chart 2-2

Social Motives Many psychologists have concentrated their research on social motives rather than on the unlearned, biological motives we have been discussing.  Social motives are learned from our interactions with other people. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-12

Measuring the Need for Achievement
The achievement motive concerns the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks.  Researcher David McClelland’s main tool for measuring achievement motivation was the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT).  Critics have claimed that using McClelland’s TAT is not a reliable method of testing the need for achievement. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-13

Measuring the Need for Achievement (cont.) Fear of Failure
While some people are motivated by a need for achievement, others may be motivated by a fear of failure.  How does the fear of failure differ from the need for achievement?  People display fear of failure when they choose easy or nonchallenging tasks in which failure is unlikely or difficult. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-14

Measuring the Need for Achievement (cont.) Fear of Success
Matina Horner identified another dimension of achievement motivation–the motive to avoid success.  Horner discovered that bright women, who had a very real chance of achieving in their chosen fields, exhibited a stronger fear of success than did women who were average or slightly above average.  Fear of success is found in both men and women. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-15

Your Performance Chart 2-3

Measuring the Need for Achievement (cont.) Other Theories
J.W. Atkinson developed an expectancy-value theory to explain goal-directed behavior.  Expectancy is your estimated likelihood of success, and value is simply what the goal is worth to you.  Others have argued instead for a competency theory; too easy a task or too difficult a task means we do not learn anything about how competent we are. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-16

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow believed that all human beings need to feel competent, to win approval and recognition, and to sense that they have achieved something.  He placed achievement motivation in the context of a hierarchy of needs all people share.  Maslow’s scheme incorporates all the factors we have discussed so far in this chapter and goes a step further. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-17

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (cont.)
Chart 2-4

Maslow asserted that people have to satisfy fundamental needs to live.  The second level in Maslow’s hierarchy consists of psychological needs: the need to belong and to give and receive love, and the need to acquire esteem through competence and achievement. fundamental needs biological drives that must be satisfied to maintain life psychological needs the urge to belong and to give and receive love, and the urge to acquire esteem Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-18

Self-actualization needs are at the top of Maslow’s hierarchy.  These may include the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential. self-actualization needs the pursuit of knowledge and beauty or whatever else is required for the realization of one’s unique potential Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-19

Other research does not support Maslow’s conclusion that one need must be satisfied before another can be (Liebert & Spiegler, 1994).  Also, some people do not seem interested in fulfilling higher needs.  These researchers are suggesting that perhaps Maslow identified types of needs that may operate in all of us, but there is no guarantee that the needs must be satisfied in order. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 2-20

End of Section 2

Section 3 Emotions

Introduction It is difficult to draw a clear line between motives and emotions.  When we want to emphasize the needs, desires, and mental calculations that lead to goal-directed behavior, we use the word “drive” or “motivation.”  When we want to stress the feelings associated with these decisions and activities, we use the word “emotion” or “affect.” Section 3-2

Introduction (cont.) Sometimes emotions function like biological drives: Our feelings energize us and make us pursue a goal.  Anticipated emotions are the incentive for our actions.  Emotions help us make decisions and communicate what is going on inside of us. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-3

Introduction (cont.) Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, imagine, and understand emotions and to use that information in decision making.  Our emotional intelligence helps us gauge the situation and determine an appropriate action. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-4

The Range of Emotions Chart 3-1

Expressing Emotions An emotion is a subjective feeling provoked by real or imagined objects or events that have high significance to the individual. emotion a set of complex reactions to stimuli involving subjective feelings, physiological arousal, and observable behavior Section 3-5

Expressing Emotions (cont.)
Emotions result from four occurrences:  you must interpret some stimulus  you have a subjective feeling, such as fear or happiness  you experience physiological responses, such as an increased heart rate  you display an observable behavior, such as smiling or crying (Platnick, 1999) Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-6

All emotions have three parts:  The physical aspect has to do with how the emotion affects the physical arousal of an individual.  The behavioral part is the outward expression of the emotion such as body language, hand gestures, and the tone of a person’s voice.  The cognitive aspect concerns how we think or interpret a situation, which affects our emotions. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-7

In The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872), Charles Darwin argued that all people express certain basic feelings in the same ways.  Studies have implied that certain basic facial expressions are innate–that is, part of our biological inheritance.  Psychologist Carroll Izard and his colleagues (Trotter, 1983) developed a coding system for assessing emotional states in people. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-8

Another psychologist (Russell, 1994) concluded that there are universally recognized facial expressions of emotions.  James Averill (1983) believes that many of our everyday emotional reactions are the result of social expectations and consequences.  We learn to express and experience emotions in the company of other people, and we learn that emotions can serve different social functions. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-9

Learning explains the differences we find among cultures once we go beyond such basic expressions as laughing or crying.  Children are taught–either directly or indirectly–which emotions are appropriate in certain circumstances.  All of us are born with the capacity for emotion and with certain basic forms of expression, but when, where, and how we express different feelings depend in large part on learning. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-10

Analyzing facial expressions helps us to describe emotions, but it does not tell us where emotions come from.  Some psychologists believe emotions derive from physical changes, while others believe that emotions result from mental processes. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-11

Threatening Elements When people from various cultures were asked to identify the the threatening shapes in each pair, they consistently selected the triangular and diagonal elements. Chart 3-2

Physiological Theories
Trying to figure out the cognitive, behavioral, and physical parts of emotions has led to several theories of emotions.  In Principles of Psychology, a classic work published in 1890, William James attempted to summarize the best available literature on human behavior, motivations, and feelings.  We associate feelings with sudden increases or decreases in energy, muscle tension and relaxation, and sensations in the pits of our stomachs. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-12

Physiological Theories (cont.) The James-Lange Theory
James concluded that we use the word “emotion” to describe our visceral or “gut” reactions to the things that take place around us.  James argued that bodily reactions form the basis of labeling and experiencing emotions.  Because Carl Lange came to the same conclusion at about the same time, this position is known as the James-Lange theory (Lange & James, 1922). Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-13

Carroll Izard’s (1972) theory of emotions bears a striking resemblance to the James-Lange theory.  He believed that our conscious experience of emotion results from the sensory feedback we receive from the muscles in our faces. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-14

Critics of the James-Lange theory claim that different emotions such as anger, sadness, or fear are not necessarily associated with different physiological reactions.  Although physiological changes do not cause emotions, they may increase the intensity of the emotions that we feel. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-15

Physiological Theories (cont.) The Cannon-Bard Theory
In 1929 Walter B. Cannon published a summary of the evidence against the James-Lange theory.  Cannon argued that the thalamus (part of the lower brain) is the seat of emotion–an idea Philip Bard (1934) expanded and refined.  This theory states that the brain sends two reactions–arousal and experience of emotion. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-16

Physiological Theories (cont.) The Cannon-Bard Theory
Later, more sophisticated experiments showed that the thalamus is not involved in emotional experience, but the hypothalamus is.  Cannon was the first to describe the “fight-or-flight” reaction of the sympathetic nervous system that prepares us for an emergency.  Some of the signs of physiological arousal are measured in one of the most famous applications of psychological knowledge: lie detection. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-17

Cognitive Theories Cognitive theorists believe that bodily changes and thinking work together to produce emotions.  What you feel depends on how you interpret your symptoms.  This, in turn, depends on labeling the physical arousal with an emotion to interpret our internal state. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-18

Cognitive Theories (cont.) The Schachter-Singer Experiment
Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer designed an experiment to explore this theory (1962).  They told all their participants they were testing the effects of vitamin C on eyesight.  In reality, most received an adrenaline injection. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-19

Their experiment showed that internal components of emotion (such as those adrenaline produces) affect a person differently depending on his or her interpretation or perception of the social situation.  The experiment also showed that internal changes are important.  When people cannot explain their physical reactions, they take cues from their environment. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-20

Perception and arousal interact to create emotions.  Critics of this theory point out that you do not need to first experience physiological arousal to feel an emotion.  Critics also say that you use processes other than environmental cues to interpret your emotions. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-21

Theories of Emotion Chart 3-3a

Theories of Emotion Chart 3-3b

Cognitive Theories (cont.) Opponent-Process Theory
Physiological processes clearly are controlled by homeostatic mechanisms that keep the body within certain narrow limits.  The body has sympathetic and parasympathetic systems.  The sympathetic system energizes the body for activity, while the parasympathetic system calms and relaxes the body.  The opponent-process theory states that these two systems act in concert to regulate and manipulate our emotions. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-22

Psychologists Richard Solomon and John Corbit (1974) proposed the opponent-process theory.  This is a homeostatic theory of emotional reactions based on classical conditioning.  They proposed that the removal of a stimulus that excites one emotion causes a swing to an opposite emotion. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-23

Other emotion researchers believe that emotion may play an important role in our survival as human beings and in our ability to achieve goals, precisely because it spurs us to action.  Emotions and physical changes are intertwined. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Section 3-24

Fear and Relief Chart 3-4

End of Section 3

Section 1: Theories of Motivation
The instinct theory of motivation stressed that humans were motivated by a variety of instincts.  The drive-reduction theory is based on the idea that all human motives are extensions of basic biological needs.  The incentive theory stresses the role of the environment in motivating behavior.  The cognitive theory proposes that motivation is influenced by forces both inside and outside individuals that energize them to move. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Chapter Summary 1

Section 2: Biological and Social Motives
Biological motives often involve the organisms’ need to correct imbalances and deviations from their normal state.  The hypothalamus interprets three kinds of information–the amount of glucose entering a body’s cells, an individual’s set-point, and body temperature–to determine whether an individual will eat or not.  Social motives are learned from people’s interactions with other people. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Chapter Summary 2

Section 2: Biological and Social Motives (cont.)
The achievement motive concerns the desire to set challenging goals and to persist in trying to reach those goals despite obstacles, frustrations, and setbacks. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Chapter Summary 3

Section 3: Emotions An emotion is a subjective feeling provoked by real or imagined objects or events that have high significance to the individual.  All emotions have three parts: the physical, the behavioral, and the cognitive parts.  Some psychologists believe emotions derive from physical changes, while others believe that emotions result from mental processes. Click the mouse button or press the Space Bar to display the information. Chapter Summary 4

End of Chapter Summary

Chapter Objectives Section 1: Theories of Motivation

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