1. Questions And Instruments
Interviews: Administered verbally by the researcher.
Questionnaire: Administered by the respondents to themselves.

2. Questionnaires Interviews 1- Economy: less time and cost
Need staff, costly and time consuming
2- Standardization: No interviewer bias
Interviewer bias
3- Anonymity: privacy encourages candid to sensitive questions
Not applicable
4- Difficulty in clarity
The interviewer clarifies the questions and avoid illiteracy problems
5- Richness: poor
Can collect more complex answers
and observations
6- Completeness: missing questions
and non response
Minimized by the interviewer
7- Control: Non
The interviewer can control the order of the questions
8- Can be mailed
Cannot, but S.T. by telephone

3. Smoking overweight stress
Open-ended and closed ended questions:
Open ended questions:
Ex.: what habits do you believe increase persons chance of having a heart attack?
Disadvantage: difficulty to code and analyze responses
Closed ended questions:
Ex.: which of the following habits do you believe increases person chance of having a heart attack (choose one):
Smoking overweight stress

4. Closed ended questions lead the respondent in a certain direction and do not allow him to express his own, moreover, the potential responses listed may not include an answer that is more appropriate to the respondent and this last problem can be minimized by conducting a pretest using an open-ended version of the question to collect potential responses or S.T. we add (others) to expand the base of choices or S.T. we make it as “yes” or “no”

5. Ex.: Which of the following increase the chance of having a heart disease?
A. Smoking (yes) (No) (Don’t know)
B. overweight (yes) (No) (Don’t know)
C. Stress (yes) (No) (Don’t know)

6. Have you ever been told that you have high Blood pressure?
Sometimes we wish to follow up some answers with more details so we do branching questions ex.:
Have you ever been told that you have high Blood pressure?
Yes No
If Yes how old were you when you first told that?
If No go to the next question

7. Wording
Each word in a question can influence the validity, so to increase accuracy we must pay attention to these points:
Simplicity: avoid terminology and difficult nomenclature.
Clarity : by giving clear and abstract words in the question.
Neutrality :avoid loaded words: ex. it is better to ask: “during the last month, how often did you smoke >5 cigarettes” than to ask:”during the last month, how often did you smoke a large number of cigarettes?

8. Double –barreled question: ex
Double –barreled question: ex. ”how many cups of coffee or tea do you drink during a day.
Setting the time frame: make the respondent describe the answers in terms of some units of time ex. ”how many tablets do you take a day”, but be aware of seasonal or daily change in behaviors so try to measure the average not the extreme. ex.” during the last 7 days, on how many days did you smoke? or how much you smoke a day?

9. Types of Questions 1. Open Ended “Free response”: Always qualitative
Useful when response is easily handled
Used in exploratory =pilot study (survey)
Can change to closed
Useful in studying complicated- illformed opinions

10. Types of Questions 2. Closed Ended “Fixed- alternative”: Yes- No
Agree- disagree
Multiple alternative
Easy to analyze
Of limited response so can give change to “don’t know”

11. Conducting The Questions
List the variable to be estimated first: (age- sex- occupation- marital status……….)
Take in consideration barriers as ( language- culture)
Start to formulate the questions
is it ?
Self administrative
Interview

12. Conducting The Questions
Look for:
Validity: true information or biased
Repeatability: if repeated, give the same response
Prior training of the interviewers

13. Conducting The Questions
Do pilot study to test:
~ The questionnaire design
~ Response
~ Time needed
~ Clarity
~ Length of questionnaire
Re-formulate the questions after the pilot

14. Conducting The Questions
Now- it is time to start But
~ Ensure standardization
~ Diagnostic criteria for use disease
~ Examination
Check on the worker or investigator or the flow of the work every now and then
Handle the data to present or to analyze

15. Formulation of Questionnaire
Start with simple easy to answer questions
Follow chronological sequences of questions
Keep difficult questions towards the end
Break the continuity with relatively long questions in order not to lose the validity

16. Formulation of Questionnaire
Borrow questions from other studies usually to ensure comparing with other studies
Use clear language/ correct translation
Avoid complex questions with more than one answer
Avoid frequent successive Yes- No questions

17. Formulation of Questionnaire
Consider the culture- habit- environmental conditions e.g. in asking about S.T.D
Look and assure: Validity- Reliability
Put Questions to which responders can answer e.g. if old grand mama use contraception or not
Be faire. Don’t phrase questions to suggest an answer you want

18. Interview Questions Properly train the interviewer
Carefully choose those interviewer by age - Sex- education- skills- social class
Consider the time- place of interview and its impact
Look for privacy in conducting the interview
Record answer as they are : own words
Use good attitude plus the skills

19. Factors Affecting Interview Result
For the questions: Simple- clear- length- number- language- formulation
Despondence: level of education- social life- what they were asked about
Interviewer: Knowledge- attitude- practice- skills- any interference by him- time of his visit- place of interviewing

20. Steps in writing questionnairs and instruments:
1. Decide Which to use.
2. Make a list of variables.
3. Borrow from other instruments; but you can add or change to improve.
4. Write a draft: should include more questions about each topic than will eventually be included in the instrument because the instrument is likely to undergo many revisions.
5. Revise:by the investigator and also by colleagues and experts
6. Pretest: tested for clarity in usually with 2-5 respondents and then another (larger) pretest,the aim is to discover the time consumed by the questionnaire,difficulties and anything which is not clear or not accurate.
7. Shorten and revise again :also rank questions in term of their importance.
8. Pre code:For a potential closed-ended response.

21. Annual flue vaccination
Codes: Scores and scales: giving a code 1,2,3, ex.:
1- Not smoking
2- Smoking ½ Packet a day
3- Smoking 1 packet a day and so on.
Scores: ex. how important are these items for maintaining health?
Breast self exam
High
Low 1 2 3 4
Annual flue vaccination
High calcium diet

22. Types Of Scales Summative (Likert) scale:
ex. For each item mark an (x) on the line that best represent your opinion :
a. Smoking in public places should be illegal:
b. Public funds should be spent for antismoking campaign:
Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

23. Cumulative (Guttman) Scale:
ex. circle the letter of every statement that you agree:
A smoking can cause illness.
B. Smoking is an important cause of illness
C. smoking is a very important cause of illness
D. smoking is the most import. cause of illness