1. Interpreting the Constitution Principles Underlying the Constitution

2. Interpreting the Constitution
The Constitution is a general document and open to interpretation.
The Necessary and Proper Clause:
Article I gives Congress the power “to make all Laws which shall be necessary and proper” to carry out its duties.
This necessary and proper clause allows Congress to exercise implied powers not specifically listed in the Constitution.

3. Interpreting the Constitution
Americans disagree on what laws are “necessary and proper.”
Loose interpreters believe Congress can make any laws not specifically forbidden.
Strict interpreters believed Congress can make only the kinds of laws mentioned in the Constitution.

4. Interpreting the Constitution
The Supreme Court has the final authority on interpreting the Constitution.
Each new interpretation, whether strict or loose, changes our government.

5. Interpreting the Constitution
Actions by Congress and the president have also caused new interpretations.
An example: the president requests legislation from Congress. This action is not directed by the Constitution.
Custom also changes the interpretation of the Constitution.
For example: political parties, not mentioned in the Constitution, are part of today’s political system.

6. Popular Sovereignty The Framers had a common vision for government:
It should be representative of the people and limited in scope.
Power should be divided among different levels
To achieve these ends, the Framers embraced five principles as the backbone of the Constitution:
Popular sovereignty
Rule of law

7. Popular Sovereignty
Separation of powers.
Checks and balances
Federalism
Article IV guarantees a republic, in which supreme power belongs to the people. This is popular sovereignty.
The people express their will through elected representatives.
Provisions, such as those about the right to vote, ensure popular sovereignty.

8. Rule of Law
The Framers believed that government should be strong but not too strong.
The Constitution sets limits by stating what government may and may not do.
Government is also limited by the rule of law. This means that the law applies to everyone, even those who govern.

9. Separation of Powers
To keep any one person or group from becoming too powerful, the Framers divided government into three branches with different functions.
This split of authority among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches is called the separation of powers.

10. Checks and Balances
Checks and balances keep any one branch from becoming too powerful.
Each branch can check, or restrain, the power of the others.
For example: the president can veto laws, Congress can block presidential appointments, and the Supreme Court can overturn laws it finds contrary to the Constitution.

12. Federalism
Under federalism, power is shared by the national government and the states. Americans must obey the laws of both.
Enumerated or expressed powers are powers the Constitution specifically grants the national government.
Powers not given to the national government are reserved powers kept by the states.

13. Federalism
Powers that both levels of government can exercise are concurrent powers.
When national and state laws conflict, the Constitution is the final authority.
Neither the national nor state governments may act in violation of it.
The Constitution is both durable and adaptable. It provides the government sufficient power to keep order, protect, and defend, yet sets limits to avoid tyranny.