1. Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources Third Edition
Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World: A Brief Global History with Sources Third Edition
CHAPTER 1
First Peoples, First Farmers
Most of History in a Single Chapter to 4000 B.C.E.
Copyright © 2016 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
Distributed by Bedford/St. Martin's/Macmillan Higher Education strictly for use with its products; Not for redistribution.

3. I. Out of Africa: First Migrations
A. Into Eurasia 1. Migration, around 45,000 years ago 2. Early European Settlement 3. Cave Paintings 4. New Technologies in Ukraine and Russia
Out of Africa: First Migrations
Into Eurasia
1. Migration: Humans started migrating into the Middle East around 45,000 years ago
2. Early European Settlement: The best evidence of early European settlement comes from southern France and northern Spain. Settlers in Northern Europe were pushed southward into warmer areas around 20,000 years ago. They developed new hunting habits and new hunting technologies.
3. Cave Paintings: The earliest Europeans left hundreds of cave paintings: depictions of animals and humans and abstract designs.
4.New Technologies in Ukraine and Russia: Needles, multilayered clothing, weaving, nets, storage pits, baskets, pottery, etc. Partially underground dwellings made from mammoth remains suggest semi permanent settlement. Female figurines (“Venus figurines”) were earliest dated at least 35,000 years ago.

5. I. Out of Africa: First Migrations
B. Into Australia 1. From Indonesia, 60,000 years ago 2. Sparse settlement 3. Languages and Communication Networks 4. Dreamtime
Out of Africa: First Migrations
B. Into Australia
From Indonesia 60,000 years ago: Migrations as early as 60,000 years ago from Indonesia into Australia
Sparse settlement: Estimated 300,000 people in Still a completely hunting and gathering society when Europeans arrived in 1788.
Languages and Communication Networks: Development of some 250 languages; major communication and exchange networks.
The Dreamtime: Complex worldview. Stories, ceremonies, and art tell of ancestral beings. Everything in the natural order is an echo of ancient happenings. Current people are intimately related to places and events in the past. Included stones, pigments, wood, pituri (psychoactive drug), songs, dances, stories, and rituals.

7. I. Out of Africa: First Migrations
C. Into the Americas 1. Settlement, 30,000 – 15,000 years ago 2. Clovis 3. Next Stage
Out of Africa: First Migrations
C. Into the Americas
1. Settlement: When settlement of the Americas began is still argued over (somewhere between 30,000 and 15,000 years ago). The mode of migration (Bering Strait or by sea down west coast of North America) is also still argued about, as well as how many migrations and how long they took. There is evidence of humans in southern Chile by 12,500 years ago.
2. Clovis: The first clearly defined and widespread culture of the Americas. The name comes from the Clovis point, a kind of projectile point. It flourished briefly around 13,000 years ago. People hunted large mammals (mammoths, bison), and disappeared at the same time as the extinction of a number of large mammals
3. Next Stage: Much greater cultural diversity, as people adapted to the end of the Ice Age in different ways

8. I. Out of Africa: First Migrations
D. Into the Pacific 1. Last Phase of the Great Human Migration 2. Migration by Water: Bismarck, Solomon, Philippines 3. Settlements of Pacific Basin within 2,500 years 4. Pacific Settlers
Out of Africa: First Migrations
D. Into the Pacific
1. Last phase of the great human migration: started ca. 3,500 years ago.
2. Migration by water: from the Bismarck and Solomon islands and the Phillipines. Very quick migration over very long distances. Migrants spoke Austronesian languages, which can be traced to southern China.
3. Settled every habitable area of the Pacific Basin within 2,500 years: Also settled the island of Madagascar, and made Austronesian the most widespread language family. The occupation of Aotearoa (New Zealand) completed the initial human settlement of the world ca C.E.
4. Pacific settlers: Took agriculture with them, unlike other migrations. Also apparently followed a deliberate colonization plan and created highly stratified societies or chiefdoms (e.g., Hawaii). Had a massive environmental impact on previously uninhabited lands.

10. II. The Ways We Were
A. The First Human Societies 1. Small societies, slow population growth 2. Paleolithic Bands 3. Egalitarian Societies 4. Relationships between Women and Men 5. Clearly Defined Rules
II. The Ways We Were
A. The First Human Societies
1. Small societies, slow population growth: Bands of people. Very low population density due to available technology, and very slow population growth. 70,000 years ago the population dropped to about 10,000. It grew to 500,000 by 30,000 years ago, and reached 6 million 10,000 years ago.
2. Paleolithic bands: Paleolithic bands were seasonally mobile or nomadic. They moved in regular patterns to exploit wild plants and animals. Since they moved around, they couldn’t accumulate goods.
3. Egalitarian Societies: Societies were highly egalitarian, perhaps the most free people in human existence. They did not have specialists, so most people had the same skills.
4. Relationships between Women and Men: The relationships between women and men were far more equal than in later societies. Rape, wife beating, and the sexual double standard were all unknown in San culture. San mostly live in monogamous relationships and divorce is common among young adults. James Cook described the gathering and hunting peoples of Australia as tranquil and socially equal, but tensions did exist. European settlers observed physical competition among Australian males, and wife beating. Some Aboriginal myths explain how men achieved power over women. In San culture the distribution of meat, perceived laziness, stinginess, rivalry for women all cause tension.
5. Clearly Defined Rules: Paleolithic societies had clearly defined rules, such as the rule that men hunted and women gathered. There were clear rules about distribution of meat from a kill, and rules about incest and adultery.

12. II. The Ways We Were
B. Economy and the Environment 1. “Primitive” Gathering and Hunting Peoples 2. Alteration of Natural Environments
II. The Ways We Were
B. Economy and the Environment
“Primitive” Gathering and Hunting Peoples: Gathering and Hunting peoples used to be regarded as “primitive” and impoverished. Modern studies point out that they worked fewer hours, wanted or needed little, and had a low life expectancy (35 years on average).
Alteration of Natural Environments: They deliberately set fires to encourage growth of certain plants. Many large animals went extinct shortly after humans arrived, and other hominids gradually went extinct, like the Neanderthals (Europe) and Flores man (Indonesia).

13. II. The Ways We Were
C. The Realm of the Spirit 1. Spiritual world of Paleolithic peoples 2. Rich ceremonial life 3. Variety of beliefs
II. The Ways We Were
C. The Realm of the Spirit
1. Spiritual world of Paleolithic peoples: It is difficult to decipher the spiritual world of Paleolithic peoples. There is a lack of written sources, art is subject to interpretation, and contemporary gathering and hunting peoples may not reflect the ancient experience.
2. Rich ceremonial life: Led by part-time shamans (people especially skilled at dealing with the spirit world), with a frequent use of psychoactive drugs to contact spirits.
3. Variety of Beliefs: Some societies were seemingly monotheistic, others saw several levels of supernatural beings, still others believed in an impersonal force running throughout the natural order. Venus figurines make some scholars think that Paleolithic religion was strongly feminine, with a great goddess. Many peoples probably had a cyclical view of time, and many made no sharp distinction between the material and spiritual worlds.

15. II. The Ways We Were
D. Settling Down: The Great Transition 1. Gradual change 2. Collection of wild grains 3. Climate change 4. Settlement leads to societal change
II. The Ways We Were
D. Settling Down: The Great Transition
Gradual change: Gradual change as populations grew, climates changed, and peoples interacted.
Collection of wild grains: started in Northeastern Africa around 16,000 years ago.
Climate Change: Last Ice Age ended 16,000–10,000 years ago, followed by a “global warming” period, with a richer and more diverse environment for human societies. Population rise and the beginnings of settlement.
Settlement leads to societal change: Larger and more complex societies, storage and accumulation of goods led to inequality.

16. II. The Ways We Were
D. Settling Down: The Great Transition 5. Settling-down, 12,000 – 4,000 years ago 6. Göbekli Tepe 7. Chumash gatherer hunters in southern California 8. Settled gatherer hunter communities
II. The Ways We Were
D. Settling Down: The Great Transition
5. Settling-down: The settling-down process occurred in many areas 12,000–4,000 years ago: Japan (Jomon culture), Scandinavia, Southeast Asia, North America, Middle East. Bows and arrows were invented independently in Europe, Africa, and Middle East
6. Göbekli Tepe: Göbekli Tepe archeological complex in southeastern Turkey, a ceremonial site comprising 20 circles made up of carved limestone pillars. Gatherer hunter builders lived at least part of the year in settled villages. Example of monumental construction by gatherer hunters.
7. Chumash gather hunters in southern California: Developed substantial permanent structures, hereditary political elites, elements of a market economy, and the beginnings of class distinctions.
8. Settled gatherer hunter communities: Major turn away from small group nomadic communities, placed greater demand on the environment; agriculture emerged in these more complex gathering and hunting societies.

18. III. Breakthroughs to Agriculture
A. Common Patterns 1. Agricultural Revolution 2. Global Warming Cycle 3. Managing the Natural World 4. More Permanent Villages
III. Breakthroughs to Agriculture
A. Common Patterns
1. Agricultural Revolution: The Agricultural Revolution happened independently in several world regions: Fertile Crescent of Southwest Asia, Several areas in sub-Saharan Africa, China, New Guinea, Mesoamerica, the Andes, eastern North America. All happened at about the same time, 12,000–4,000 years ago. Scholars have struggled with the question of why agriculture developed so late in human history
2. Global Warming Cycle: The Agricultural Revolution coincided with the end of the last Ice Age. Global warming cycle started around 16,000 years ago, while the Ice Age was over by about 11,000 years ago. End of Ice Age coincided with human migration across earth. Extinction of some large mammals: climate change and hunting; warmer, wetter weather allowed more wild plants to flourish.
3. Managing the Natural World: Gathering and hunting peoples had already learned some ways to manage the natural world. “Broad spectrum diet,” development of sickles, baskets, and other tools to make use of wild grain in the Middle East. Amazon peoples had learned to cut back some plants to encourage growth of the ones they wanted, and Australians had elaborate eel traps. Women were probably the agricultural innovators.
4. More Permanent Villages: Gathering and hunting peoples started to establish more permanent villages, especially in resource-rich areas, population growth perhaps led to a “food crisis.” The need to supply food to those who built and maintained Göbekli Tepe may have stimulated agriculture.

21. III. Breakthroughs to Agriculture
B. Variations 1. Variations on agricultural development by region 2. The Fertile Crescent 3. Domestication in eastern Sahara 4. Development of agriculture in the Americas
III. Breakthroughs to Agriculture
B. Variations
1. Variations on agricultural development by region: Agriculture developed in a number of regions, but with variation. It depended on the plants and animals that were available. Only a few hundred plant species have been domesticated. Only fourteen large mammal species were domesticated.
2. The Fertile Crescent: The Fertile Crescent was the first to have a full Agricultural Revolution. It had a presence of a large variety of plants and animals to be domesticated. Transition to agriculture triggered by a cold and dry spell between 11,000 and b.c.e., transition apparently only took about 500 years. Much more societal sophistication (mud bricks, monuments and shrines, more elaborate burials, more sophisticated tools)
3. Domestication in eastern Sahara: At about the same time, domestication started in the eastern Sahara (present-day Sudan). The region was much more hospitable 10,000–5,000 years ago. Domestication of cattle there about 1,000 years before Middle East and India. In Africa, animals were domesticated first; elsewhere, plants were domesticated first. The emergence of several widely scattered farming practices. African agriculture was less productive than agriculture in the Fertile Crescent.
4. Separate development of agriculture at several places in the Americas. Absence of animals available for domestication. Lacked cereal grains, instead relied on maize or corn. Result: replacement of gathering and hunting with agriculture took 3,500 years in Mesoamerica. Americas are oriented north/south, so agricultural practices had to adapt to distinct climate zones to spread.

24. IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
A. Triumph and Resistance 1. Spread of language and culture 2. The globalization of agriculture
IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
A. Triumph and Resistance
1. Spread of language and culture: Language and culture spread with agriculture: Indo-European languages probably started in Turkey, are spoken today from Europe to India. Similar process with Chinese farming. Spread of Bantu language in southern Africa; there was a similar spread of Austronesian-speaking peoples to Philippines and Indonesian islands, then to Pacific islands and Madagascar.
2. The globalization of agriculture: The globalization of agriculture took about 10,000 years: Agriculture did not spread beyond its core region in New Guinea, and did not spread in a number of other regions. It was resisted where the land was unsuitable for farming or where there was great natural abundance. By the beginning of the Common Era, gathering and hunting peoples were a small minority of humankind.

26. IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
B. The Culture of Agriculture 1. Changes in world population 2. Effects on the environment 3. Ordinary Life 4. New constraints on human communities
IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
B. The Culture of Agriculture
Changes in world population: Agriculture led to much greater populations: around 6 million people 10,000 years ago, around 50 million people 5,000 years ago, and around 250 million people at the beginning of the Common Era.
Effects on the environment: fields and grazing land replaced forests and grasslands, humans modified the genetic composition of plants and animals through selection, and civilization brought even more intensive agriculture.
Ordinary Life: Farming did not necessarily improve life for ordinary people. It meant much more hard work, health deteriorated in early agricultural societies, new diseases came from interaction with animals, the first epidemics appeared due to larger communities, and there was a new vulnerability to famine, because of dependence on a small number of plants or animals.
New constraints on human communities: All agricultural people settled in permanent villages, such as the case of Banpo in China (settled ca. 7,000 years ago).

27. IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
B. The Culture of Agriculture 5. Explosion of technological innovation 6. “Secondary products revolution” 7. Brewing of alcohol
IV. The Globalization of Agriculture
B. The Culture of Agriculture
5. Explosion of technological innovation: pots, textiles, metallurgy.
6. “Secondary products revolution”: Started ca b.c.e.: a new set of technological changes. New uses for domesticated animals, including milking, riding, hitching to plows and carts. Only available in the Eastern Hemisphere.
7. Brewing of Alcohol: widespread brewing of alcohol emerged with the agricultural revolution.

30. V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
A. Pastoral Societies 1. Reliance on animals 2. Horses and camels 3. Nomadic herders and their farming neighbors 4. Relative equality between men and women
V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
A. Pastoral Societies
1. Reliance on animals: Some regions relied much more heavily on animals, because farming was difficult or impossible there. pastoral nomads emerged in central Asia, the Arabian Peninsula, the Sahara desert, parts of eastern and southern Africa. Different regions relied on different animals. No pastoral societies emerged in the Americas.
2. Horses were domesticated by b.c.e.; encouraged the spread of pastoral peoples on Central Asian steppes. Domesticated camels allowed human life in the inner Asian, Arabian, and Saharan deserts
3. Relations between nomadic herders and their faming neighbors has been an enduring theme in Afro-Eurasian history. Often conflict as pastoralists sought access to agricultural products and competed for land, but also peaceful exchanges of technology, ideas, products and peoples.
4. Relative equality between men and women persisted in pastoral societies. Women were essential in milking animals, processing milk and making textiles, and some participated in battle.

32. V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
B. Agricultural Village Societies 1. Banpo, Jericho 2. Çatalhüyük 3. Male vs. Female Dominance 4. Lineage Groups
V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
B. Agricultural Village Societies
Banpo, Jericho: Most characteristic form of early agricultural societies, like Banpo or Jericho. Maintenance of equality and freedom (no kings, chiefs, bureaucrats, aristocrats).
Çatalhüyük: Çatalhüyük, in southern Turkey, had a population of several thousand. There were dead buried under their houses, no streets (people moved around on rooftops), many specialized crafts, but little sign of inherited social inequality, and no indication of male or female dominance.
Male vs. Female Dominance: In horticultural villages women were relatively equal to men, roles in farming and weaving may explain why. Some villages used matrilineal family lines, others patrilineal. In Europe and China there was evidence of preference for male children.
Lineage Groups: Village-based agricultural societies flourished into the nineteenth century. Organized by kinship or lineage groups, the lineage system performed the functions of government. They possessed modest levels of social inequality: elders sometimes sought to exploit labor of junior members and control women’s reproductive powers, and “title societies” brought prestige to members but were not hereditary.

34. V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
C. Chiefdoms 1. Mesopotamia, 6000 B.C.E. 2. The role of the Chief 3. Cahokia 4. Impact of the Agricultural Revolution
V. Social Variation in the Age of Agriculture
C. Chiefdoms
1. Mesopotamia: Chiefdoms emerged in Mesopotamia sometime after b.c.e
2. The Role of the Chief: Anthropologists have studied recent chiefdoms in the Pacific islands. Chiefs, unlike kings, usually rely on generosity, ritual status, or charisma to govern, not force. Chiefs usually claim descent from first son of an imagined ancestor, fulfill secular and religious roles, collect tribute and redistribute it to privileged groups, and keep part of tribute to sustain status.
3. Cahokia: Chiefdoms such as Cahokia emerged in North America.
4. Impact of the Agricultural Revolution: The Agricultural Revolution transformed the trajectory of human journey and evolution of life on earth: humankind came to dominate nature, and increasingly some people dominated others.