1. The Mental Side of Human Performance
Sport Psychology

2. INTRODUCTION Psychology is an academic and applied discipline that involves the scientific study of mental functions and behaviors.

3. History of Sport Psychology
Chinese and Greek Civilizations - “ Healthy mind in a healthy body”
1800’s - First sports psychology research - Effects of audience on cyclist performance
Past Three Decades - Recognition and growth of sport psychology discipline

4. Growth of Sport Psychology
Sport psychology has one recently developed and grown die to : 1. Expansion of scientific knowledge and emergence of different branches 2. Increased media attention

5. Outline
In this section you will be introduced to the following sport psychology issues: - influence of personality on performance - Effect of sport on personality - Relationship between anxiety and performance - Effect of motivation on sport performance - Effects of the audience on athletic accomplishments

6. PERSONALITY AND THE ATHLETE

7. Personality:
Pattern of characteristics thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that distinguish one person from another and persist over time and situations. Others define it as the combination of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive character: the complex of all attributes – behavioral, emotional, and mental – that characterizes a unique individual

8. The study of personality in sport psychology can help us answer the following questions: - Do athletes possess different personality characteristics than non-athletes? - Do winners possess different personality profiles than losers? - Does personality determine sport preference, or does a particular sport mold our personality accordingly? - Can personality be changed, or does it remain relatively fixed throughout involvement in sport?

9. Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes

10. Personality Profiles of Athletes Differing in Skill Level

11. Personalities of Athletes vs. Non-Athletes
Although differences exist, clear pattern of differences has yet to emerge.

12. Definitions
Personality Traits: psychological characteristics of the athletes which remain relatively stable over time
Personality States: “ right now kind of feelings” which are situation-specific
State-Trait Controversy: disagreement of the relative merits of studying states versus traits
Interactional Theory: the best state-trait approach, which considers personality traits and states, as well as situation-specific factors

13. It is NOT yet possible to distinguish between successful and unsuccessful athletes using personality traits
However, it is possible to distinguish between the elite athletes and the lesser skilled in terms of mood states

14. Mood States of Elite vs. Non-Elite Athletes
Mood states of elite Athletes vs. lesser skilled athletes are below in: Tension Depression Anger Fatigue Confusion
And are markedly higher in: Vigor
While personality traits are considered to be relatively stable over time, mood states are psychological responses to environmental stimuli that can be fleeting and situation-specific. Mood states are of interest to psychologists because they may have a greater effect on behavior than personality traits. Sport psychologists are interested in how the mood states of athletes may positively or negatively affect their athletic performance.

15. Iceberg Profile
This mood state profile resembles an iceberg and is therefore often referred to as the iceberg profile
The profile of a person with a psychological outlook characterized by more vigor and less tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion than is found in others. This type of affect often is found in elite athletes and others with physically active lifestyles.

16. Developmental Effects of Sport on Personality

17. Are personality different due to the athletic experience
Are personality different due to the athletic experience ? OR Do certain personality traits cause the individual to go out for sports ( gravitational hypothesis) - Evidence tends to support the gravitational hypothesis Hypothesis that proposes that athletes have different personality traits from non-athletes -HOWEVER, participation in sports can also enhance personality development

18. Personality and the Athlete: Conclusions
Athletes tend to be more extroverted, independent, and self- confident than non-athletes; they also tend to be less anxious
Elite athletes can be distinguished from lesser skilled athletes by means of the iceberg profile; it is not possible however, to distinguish between winners and losers
Individuals with certain personality traits tend to gravitate towards sports; sport also has the potential to enhance certain personality traits

19. Anxiety and Athletic Performance

20. Arousal Physiological state of readiness and psychological activation
Involves the autonomic nervous system
Body’s way of preparing you for “fight or flight”

21. Stress Non-specific response of the body to any demand made upon it
Unemotional bodily response to some type of stressor
Can be either good or bad, depending upon the individual’s person interpretation
-Eustress (e.g. winning a lottery) - Distress (e.g. receiving a failing grade on a midterm test)

22. Anxiety Tension and worry that results from distress
A negatively charge emotional state characterized by discomfort and nervousness
Two forms of anxiety:
- Trait anxiety: a personality characteristic - State anxiety: a “right now” kind of anxiety

23. Anxiety Cont’d
Two components of state anxiety Cognitive state anxiety (psychological component) - caused by fear of failure - result of worrying - “I am afraid I am going to lose” Somatic state anxiety ( physical component) - perception of physiological responses - “I feel nervous before a major contest”

24. Anxiety and Athletic Performance Relationship

25. Pre- Competitive Anxiety
Temporal changes in cognitive and somatic state anxiety as competition approaches:

26. The Effect of Pre-Competitive Anxiety on Performance
Relationships between somatic anxiety and performance takes the form of an inverted – U
Relationship between cognitive anxiety and athletic performance has been shown to be linear and negative

27. Implications
Increases in somatic anxiety are associated with improved athletic performance up to a certain optimal level; therefore, athletes should attempt to increase their somatic anxiety up to an optimal level by “psyching-up”
The lower the level of cognitive state anxiety, the better the athlete will perform; therefore, athletes must learn to deal with the symptoms of cognitive anxiety

28. Relaxation Interventions to Lower Cognitive State Anxiety
Progressive Muscular Relaxation (PMR) - Takes time initially, but with practice can be completed in a matter of minutes - Especially valuable night before

29. Relaxation Intervations Cont’d
Positive Imagery - Requires practice to be effective

30. Relaxation Interventions Cont’d
Positive Self-Talk - Reassuring oneself with postive thoughts and statements - Example: “I'm a good free throw shooter,” vs. “What will the coach think of me if I blow this shot?”

31. Motivation and Sport

32. Motivation determines the reasons for an athlete’s behavior
Motivation determines the reasons for an athlete’s behavior. It is defined as the direction, energy and intensity of behavior. It is synonymous with inspiration enthusiasm, or the will to win

33. Achievement Motivation

34. Athletes predisposition to approach or avoid a competitive situation
Includes the concept of desire, or desire to excel
Not an innate drive, but is likely learned in the sporting environment

35. McClelland-Atkinson Model
McClelland-Atkinson Model suggests that achievement motivation is a function of: 1. The motive to achieve success - An athletes intrinsic motivation to engage in an exciting activity. 2. The fear of failure - A psychological construct associated with cognitive state anxiety

36. Achievement Motivation = Intrinsic motivation – cognitive state anxiety

37. Extrinsic Motivation
McClelland-Atkinson model of achievement motivation could NOT predict athletic success
Therefore, extrinsic motivation was added to the original model - Example: praise, money, trophies, and other forms of reward
This modified model acknowledges that factors external to the athlete may influence individual’s overall motivation

38. Factors Affecting Achievement Motivation
The following factors affect achievement motivation: 1. Self-confidence 2. Self- efficacy 3. Goal setting

39. Improving Achievement Motivation

40. 1. Self-Confidence
Discriminating factor between individuals high and low in achievement motivation
Similar to the motive to achieve success: - The confident athlete has a high motive to succeed and a high expectation for success

41. 2. Self-Efficacy Based on Bandura’s Model
Individuals belief that he or she is capable of succeeding at a particular task
i.e., situation-specific self-confidence
Used in a sport psychology ( vs. self confidence) because the sporting environment represents a very specific situation

42. Improving Self-efficacy
Successful Performance - the most important factor in improving self- efficacy - Raises expectations for future successes; while failure lowers these expectations - For best results : 1. Break down skill learning into small steps to insure success early 2. Practice, practice, practice 3. Highlighting successes and downplaying setbacks

43. Improving Self-efficacy
Vicarious Experience - Demonstrating repeated success through participatory modeling ( i.e., the subject first observes a model perform a task - For best results: 1. Employ participatory modeling before the athlete attempts the skill on his or her own 2. Utilize only models who are technically correct in their execution 3. Ensure successful execution by the athlete in the early stages of learning

44. Improve Self-efficacy
Verbal Persuasion - Constant provision of encouragement, as well as specific skill instructions - For best results: 1. Provide specific rather than general feedback 2. Have the athlete repeat your instructions back to you before beginning 3. Focus on the positive aspects of the athletes performance

45. Improving Self-efficacy
Emotional Arousal - An optimal level of arousal is required to develop self-efficacy - Too much or too little arousal will impact negatively on the development of self-efficacy - For best results: 1. In the early stages of learning, keep things relaxed. 2. Get to know athletes one-on-one. Some will need more arousal, while others less. 3. Help athletes recognize when they need to “psych-up or calm-down”

46. Goal Setting
Last way to improve achievement motivation is to employ effective goal setting strategies

47. Casual attribution in sport

48. Attribution theory is a cognitive approach to motivation
Attribution theory is a cognitive approach to motivation. It assumes that people strive to explain, understand, and predict events based upon their own perception. What the athlete believes to be true is important for future motivation.

49. The Development of Causal Attribution Theory

50. Outcomes can be attributed: Internally to the person (personal force) - Composed of ability and effort Externally to the environment; i.e. (environmental force) - Composed of task difficulty and luck

51. Classification Scheme for Causal Attribution

52. Stability Dimension
Stable attributions: relatively unchanging from one day to the next ( ability and task difficulty)
Unstable attributions: very markedly from time to time ( effort and luck)

53. Locus of Control Dimension
Internal attributions : include attributes perceives as controllable ( ability and effort)
External attributions : perceived to be outside the athletes control ( task difficulty and luck)

54. Implications
Before competition the athletes should be encouraged to focus on effort vs. ability - Both effort and ability are within athletes control, but effort is unstable from game to game
Athletes must focus on preparing strategies that will be effective against task difficulty (e.g. an opposing team) vs. luck - Both luck and task difficulty are beyond athletes control, but task difficulty is stable and predictable.

55. Affective Responses Associated with Casual Attributions
Effort Ability Task Difficulty Luck
Internal Attribution External Attribution

56. Affective Associated with Casual Attributions

57. Implications
After a victory, an athlete is going to feel more pride if he/she believes that the win was a result of an effort or ability rather than an opponent’s poor ability or a lucky call from the referee.

58. Cause-and-effect Relations among Attributions, Outcome and Affect
Different emotions are experienced with different causal attributions and outcomes

59. Implications
If after a success athletes attribute the success: - Internally, they typically respond with pride, confidence, and satisfaction - Externally, they will likely feel gratitude and thankfulness
After a success, regardless of attribution, affect tends to be positive and enthusiastic
The affect for failure usually is negative and possibly subdued
What is the affect after failure for internal and external attribution?

60. The Relationship Between Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation

61. Causal Attributions, Future Expectations, and Motivation

62. Causal Attributions, Future Expectations and Motivation
Whenever an outcome is different than what was expected based on past experience, the athlete tends to endorse an unstable attribution (e.g., effort or luck.)
When an outcome is as expected, based on past performances, a stable attribution (e.g., ability or task difficulty) is endorsed.

63. Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions
Therefore, it is beneficial to ascribe failures to unstable causes, since it does not imply repeated failure.

64. Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d
Implications: - Athletes should attribute a failure to unstable and internal cause; i.e., lack of effort -This suggests that more effort can change the next outcome from failure to success - And it teaches the athlete to accept responsibility for the results

65. Predicting Future Expectations From Present Attributions Cont’d
In summary, future expectancy depends on stability of the attributions

66. Promoting Self-efficacy Through Attribution and Expectancy
Promotion self-efficacy and motivation for future performance depends on both expectancy and locus of control:

67. Promoting Self-Efficacy Cont’d
Implications -Athletes who succeed should be encouraged to attribute the success to both stable and internal factors 1. A stable attribution will improve the athlete’s expectancy for future success 2. An internal attribution will enhance the athlete’s self-confidence

68. Putting it all together:

69. Promoting Self-efficacy Cont’d
Attribution training strategies leading to improved self-efficacy in future events: 1. Record and classify attributions after performances 2. After each outcome make attributions that will lead to promotion of self-efficacy (see previous table) 3. Provide an attribution training program for athletes who consistently utilize undesirable attributions 4. For best results, combine planned goal-setting with attribution training

70. Audience effects in sport

71. Spectator Effect
An important social-psychological effect on athletic performance
Influences athlete’s performance through: 1. Social facilitation – enhancement of performance due to presence of others 2. Rivalry – a desire to beat the other opponent

72. Social Facilitation
Can be further broken down into: 1. Audience effects – a situation involving the mere presence of other individuals in the same room or area 2. Coaction effects – other people are present, but are performing the same task

73. Summary

74. Evaluation Component
Whether or not the audience in perceived as important for the athlete
If the athlete perceives the audience to be: - Important and/or knowledgeable, then drive level is increased - Unimportant and/or not knowledgeable, the drive level is decreased

75. Audience Effects on Performance

76. Appropriate Timing for Spectator Effect

77. Audience Characteristics and Team Performance
The presence of supportive audience is presently the most popular explanation for home advantage
Research has established the following audience characteristics leading to a greater home advantage: -Large -Supportive - Close to the playing area (i.e., high intimacy and density)

78. The End