2. Homework #8 due Thursday, April 12, 11:30 pm.

3. Galaxies and the Foundation of Modern Cosmology

4. the study of the structure and evolution of the universe
Cosmology:
the study of the structure and evolution of the universe

5. Hubble Deep Field
Our deepest images of the universe show a great variety of galaxies, some of them billions of light-years away

6. Galaxies and Cosmology
A galaxy’s age, its distance, and the age of the universe are all closely related
The study of galaxies is thus intimately connected with cosmology — the study of the structure and evolution of the universe

7. The three major types of galaxies
Hubble Ultra Deep Field

8. Hubble Ultra Deep Field

9. Hubble Ultra Deep Field

10. Hubble Ultra Deep Field

11. Hubble
Ultra
Deep
Field

12. Hubble Ultra Deep Field

13. Hubble Ultra Deep Field

14. Spiral Galaxies

15. Disk Component:
stars of all ages,
many gas clouds
Spheroidal Component:
bulge & halo, old stars,
few gas clouds

16. Dominance of disk or bulge varies among spiral galaxies

17. The tightness and number of spiral arms also varies

18. Disk Component:
stars of all ages,
many gas clouds
Spheroidal Component:
bulge & halo, old stars,
few gas clouds

19. Barred Spiral Galaxies: A subset of spiral galaxies
that have a bar of stars across the bulge

20. Lenticular Galaxies (S0)
Have disks like spiral galaxies but much less dusty gas (intermediate between spiral and elliptical)

21. Elliptical Galaxies:
All spheroidal component, virtually no disk component

22. Elliptical Galaxies:
All spheroidal component, virtually no disk component
Red-yellow color indicates older star population

23. Roughly 80% of the largest and brightest galaxies are spirals and lenticulars.
The largest galaxies of all are the giant ellipticals. These are found at the centers of rich clusters.

24. Optical, x-ray and radio
Giant ellipticals reach their great size by slowly consuming other galaxies in the cluster.

25. Giant ellipticals reach their great size by slowly consuming other galaxies in the cluster.

26. Irregular Galaxy
Blue-white color indicates ongoing star formation

27. Some demographics:
Elliptical galaxies (sometimes referred to as spheroidal galaxies) come in a large range of sizes:
Dwarf ellipticals have as few as 107 stars
Giant ellipticals have up to 1013 stars
Dwarf ellipticals are the most common type of galaxy in the universe.
Among nearby galaxies, galaxies as large as the Milky Way (a fairly large galaxy) are rarely of the Irregular type.

28. Hubble’s galaxy classes: “Tuning Fork diagram”
Spheroid Dominates
Disk Dominates

29. How galaxies group together

30. Spiral galaxies are often found in groups of galaxies
(up to a few dozen galaxies)

31. Elliptical galaxies are much more common in huge clusters of galaxies
(hundreds to thousands of galaxies)

32. What are the three major types of galaxies?
How are the lives of galaxies connected with the history of the universe?
Galaxies generally formed when the universe was young and have aged along with the universe
What are the three major types of galaxies?
Spiral galaxies, elliptical galaxies, and irregular galaxies
Spirals have both disk and spheroidal components; ellipticals have no disk
How are galaxies grouped together?
Spiral galaxies tend to collect into groups of up to a few dozen galaxies
Elliptical galaxies are more common in large clusters containing hundreds to thousands of galaxies

33. We measure galaxy distances using a chain of interdependent techniques
Distances to galaxies
We measure galaxy distances using a chain of interdependent techniques

34. How do we determine distances to galaxies?
bootstrap process
involving multiple methods
distances to nearer objects used to calibrate distance measures to more distant objects

35. Within the solar system, distances are determined using light travel times and radar
Within a few hundred light-years, distances of stars are determined using geometric parallax
At larger distances within the Milky Way, the apparent brightness of a star combined with its known/assumed luminosity allows for distance determination.
Luminosity
Distance =
4π x Brightness
A standard candle is an object whose luminosity we can determine without measuring its distance

36. Cepheid variables: very luminous stars that vary their brightness in a very regular manner.
Their luminosity and the period of their variability are linked.

37. Because the period of a Cepheid variable star tells us its luminosity, we can use these stars as standard candles
Cepheid variable stars with longer periods have greater luminosities

39. White-dwarf supernovae can also be used as standard candles
The precursor stars are all 1.4 solar mass white dwarfs

40. Apparent brightness of white-dwarf supernova tells us the distance to its galaxy
(up to 10 billion light-years)

41. Tully-Fisher Relation
Entire galaxies can also be used as standard candles because galaxy luminosity is related to rotation speed

42. How do we measure the distances to galaxies?
The distance-measurement chain begins with parallax measurements that build on radar ranging in our solar system
Using parallax and the relationship between luminosity, distance, and brightness, we can calibrate a series of standard candles
We can measure distances greater than 10 billion light years using white dwarf supernovae as standard candles

43. Hubble and Island Universes

44. The Puzzle of “Spiral Nebulae”
Before Hubble, some scientists argued that “spiral nebulae” were entire galaxies like our Milky Way, while others maintained they were smaller collections of stars within the Milky Way

45. The Puzzle of “Spiral Nebulae”

46. Hubble settled the debate by measuring the distance to the Andromeda Galaxy using Cepheid variables as standard candles

47. Hubble’s Law
Once Hubble was able to measure distances to galaxies, he determined the distances to many galaxies and the velocities of these galaxies towards or away from us.

48. The spectral features of virtually all galaxies are redshifted  They’re all moving away from us

49. By measuring distances to galaxies, Hubble found that redshift and distance are related in a special way

50. Hubble’s Law: velocity = H0 x distance

51. Redshift of a galaxy tells us its distance through Hubble’s Law:
velocity H0

52. Distances of farthest galaxies are measured from redshifts