1. Thermodynamics
1.2.1 Enthalpy

2. 2.1 Enthalpy
Enthalpy is the heat content of a system, or the amount of energy within a substance, both kinetic and potential.
Every substance possesses both potential energy, and kinetic energy from to the constant motion of the particles. This total amount of energy is enthalpy.

3. Unit for enthalpy: the joule, J
Symbol for enthalpy: H
Unit for enthalpy: the joule, J

4. Heat of Reaction
It isn’t possible to directly measure the heat content of a substance- chemists can only measure how much enthalpy changes
Therefore, we will generally refer to the change in enthalpy, or ΔH. This is also know as the heat of the reaction.

5. Exothermic Reactions
During exothermic reactions, more energy is released during bond formation than is required to break bonds. An exothermic reaction is written like this:
Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(g) kJ
There is a net release of kJ of energy, this appears on the product side.

6. Exothermic reactions
Exothermic reactions release energy because the reactants have more potential energy than the products.
The "excess" energy is released to the surroundings.

7. _ This can be shown graphically.
The graph illustrates the amount of potential energy of the products is less than that of the reactants; potential energy decreased.

8. Thus, we could rewrite the equation shown above as:
When the amount of entropy in a system decreases a negative sign to indicate the drop.
Thus, we could rewrite the equation shown above as:
Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(g) kJ
Cu(s) + Cl2(g) → CuCl2(g) ΔH° =   kJ

9. Endothermic Reactions
During endothermic reactions, energy is absorbed from the surroundings. An endothermic reaction is written with the energy term on the reactant side:
H2O(g) + C(s) kJ → CO2(g) + 2H2(g)
H2O(g) + C(s) → CO2(g) + 2H2(g) ΔH° =132 kJ

10. Endothermic reactions
An input of energy is required
The potential energy of the reactants is lower than the potential energy of the products; energy must be added to the reaction for it to occur.

11. A potential energy graph of an endothermic reaction

12. We can remove the energy term from the equation and write it as a positive value, indicating that enthalpy increased:
H2O(g) + C(s) → CO2(g) + 2H2(g) ΔH° =  +132 kJ

13. Practice problems
1. Identify each of the following reactions as exothermic or endothermic.
CH4(s) + 2O2(g) → CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) ΔH° = -890 kJ
2HCl(g) → H2(g) + Cl2(g) ΔH° = 185 kJ
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) → 4NO(g) + 6H2O(l) ΔH° = kJ
2. When potassium nitrate dissolves in water, the beaker containing the solution gets cooler. Is dissolving this salt an exothermic or an endothermic process?