1. Chapter 14
The Senses

2. Sensory Receptors
Sensory Receptors: Dendrites specialized to detect certain types of stimuli.
Exteroceptors: Detect stimuli from outside the body (e.g. taste, hearing, vision).
Interoceptors: Receive stimuli from inside the body (e.g. change in blood pressure).
Helps maintain homeostasis!

3. Types of Sensory Receptors
Chemoreceptors: Respond to nearby chemicals.
Pain receptors (nociceptors): A type of chemoreceptors that respond to chemicals released by damaged tissue.
Photoreceptors: Respond to light energy.
Mechanoreceptors: Respond to mechanical forces such as pressure.
Thermoreceptors: Stimulated by temperature changes.

4. Senses and the Receptors Involved

5. How Sensation Occurs
Sensory receptors respond to environmental stimuli.
Nerve impulses travel to the cerebral cortex.
Sensation (conscious perception) of stimuli occurs.
Sensory adaptation (decrease in stimulus response) can occur with repetitive stimuli. (i.e. odor)

6. Proprioceptors
Proprioceptors: Mechanoreceptors involved in reflex actions that maintain muscle tone, thereby equilibrium and posture.
Detect the position of limbs by degree of muscle relaxation, stretch of tendons, and movement of ligaments.

7. Cutaneous Receptors
Receptors in the dermis that make the skin sensitive to touch, pressure, pain and temperature.

8. Taste Receptors Sensitive to sweet, sour, salty and bitter
tastes in food.
Sweet at tip of tongue.
Salty and sour on margins of tongue.
Bitter on back of tongue.
~ 3,000 taste buds mostly on the tongue.
80-90% of what we perceive as taste is actually due to the sense of smell.

9. Smell Receptors
Depends on million olfactory cells (modified neurons) in the roof of the nasal cavity.
Different odors stimulate different receptors.

10. Anatomy of the Eye 2 compartments:
Anterior Chamber: Between the cornea and lens filled with clear fluid, the aqueous humor.
Posterior Chamber: Most of the eye, behind the lens contains a gelatinous material, vitreous humor.

11. Anatomy of the Eye Made of 3 layers/coats –
Sclera: Mostly white and fibrous except the cornea; protects and supports eyeball.
Choroid: Darkly, pigmented vascular layer; Absorbs stray light.
Retina: Inner layer containing photoreceptors.

12. Anatomy of the Eye

13. The Eye: Sclera Sclera: The white of the eye that maintains eye shape.
Consists of:
Cornea: Transparent portion of the sclera that is important in refracting light.
Pupil: A hole that allows light into the eyeball.

14. The Eye: Choroid
Choroid: Middle layer that absorbs light rays that are not absorbed by the retina.
Consists of:
Iris: Donut-shaped, colored structure that regulates the size of the pupil.
Ciliary body: A structure behind the iris that contains a muscle that control the shape of the lens.
Lens: Attached to the ciliary body and functions to refract and focus light rays.

15. Anatomy of the Eye

16. The Eye: The Lens
The lens is a flexible, transparent and convex structure.
The lens accommodates by changing shape to focus light on the retina in order to form an image.
As we age the lens loses elasticity and we use glasses to correct for this.

17. The Eye: Retina Contains photoreceptors called rods and cones.
Rods are sensitive to light.
Cones require bright light and see wavelengths of light (color).
The fovea centralis is an area of the retina densely packed with cones where images are focused.
Sensory receptors from the retina form the optic nerve that takes impulses to the brain.
The blindspot is where the optic nerve attaches and lacks vision.

18. Anatomy of the Retina

19. The Eye: Photoreceptors of the Retina
Rods:
Contain a visual pigment called rhodopsin.
Important for peripheral and night vision.
Vitamin A is important for proper functioning.
Cones:
Located mostly in the fovea.
Allow us to detect fine detail and color.
3 different kinds of cones containing red, green and blue pigments.

20. Rods and Cones in the Retina

21. Summary of Eye Structures

22. Abnormalities of the Eye
Color blindness: Genetic disease most common in males in which they usually cannot see red or green.
Cataracts: Lens of the eye is cloudy.
Glaucoma: Fluid pressure builds up in the eye.
Astigmatism: Condition in which the cornea or lens is uneven leading to a fuzzy image.
Nearsightedness: Eyeball is too long making it hard to see far away objects.
Farsightedness: Eyeball is too short making it hard to see near objects.

23. Abnormalities of the Eye that are Corrected with Lenses

24. Anatomy of the Ear The ear functions in hearing and balance.
3 divisions:
Outer ear: Filled with air.
Middle ear: Filled with air.
Inner ear: Filled with fluid.

25. The Ear: Outer Ear Includes:
Pinna: The external ear flap that catches sound waves.
Auditory canal: Directs sound waves to the tympanic membrane.
Lined with fine hairs and modified sweat glands that secrete earwax.

26. The Ear: Middle Ear Includes:
Tympanic membrane (eardrum): Membrane that vibrates to carry the wave to the bones.
3 small bones called Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes): Amplify sound waves.
Eustachian tube: A tube that connects from the throat to the middle ear and is used to equalize pressure so the eardrum does not burst.

27. Anatomy of the Ear

28. The Ear: Inner Ear Important for both hearing and balance. 3 areas:
Cochlea
Semicircular canals
Vestibule
Stapes (middle ear bone) vibrates and strikes the membrane of the oval window causing fluid waves in the cochlea.
Vestibule: Gravitational equilibrium.
Semicircular canals: Rotational equilibrium.

29. The Ear: Cochlea Converts vibrations into nerve impulses.
Contains the Organ of Corti: Spiral-shaped sense organ containing hairs for hearing.
Bending of embedded hairs cause vibrations that send nerve impulses to the cochlear nerve and then to the brain.
Pitch is determined by varying wave frequencies that are detected by different parts of the organ of Corti.
Volume is determined by the amplitude of sound waves.

30. The Inner Ear: Hearing

31. The Inner Ear: Semicircular Canals and Vestibule
Detects movement of the head in the vertical and horizontal planes (gravitational equilibrium).
Depends on hair cells in the utricle and saccule.
Detects angular movement (rotational equilibrium).
Depends on hair cells at the base of each semicircular canal (ampulla).

32. The Inner Ear: Balance

33. Bioethical Focus: Noise Pollution
Loud noises (>85 decibels) or chronic noise can damage inner ear cells
Environmental noise can cause mental health issues such as inability to concentrate, an increase in irritability and anxiety
Noise can cause loss of sleep and productivity and can lead to anxiety
What should be done about noise pollution?