1. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
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2. I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
I. THEORIES OF SOCIAL & PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT
Psychoanalytic theories identify and clarify the major themes of social and personality development during adolescence, such as the teenager’s acquiring a sense of who she is as an individual
Cultural perspectives derived from other disciplines can reveal the important role culture plays in the adolescent’s transition from child to adult
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3. A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
A. Psychoanalytic Perspectives
Freud
Post-pubertal years are the last stage of personality development
Genital stage: the period during which people reach psychosexual maturity
Erikson
During this period the adolescent’s mind is in a kind of moratorium between childhood and adulthood
Identity versus role confusion: the stage during which adolescents attain a sense of who they are
Identity crisis: the psychological state of emotional turmoil that arises when an adolescent’s sense of self becomes “unglued” so that a new, more mature sense of self can be achieved
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4. B. Marcia's Theory of Identity Achievement
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
B. Marcia's Theory of Identity Achievement
James Marcia
Adolescent identity formation has two key parts: a crisis and a commitment
Four different identity statuses are possible:
Identity achievement: The person has been through a crisis and has reached a commitment to ideological, occupational, or other goals
Moratorium: the identity status of a person who is in a crisis but who has made no commitment
Foreclosure: the identity status of a person who has made a commitment without having gone through a crisis; the person has simply accepted a parentally or culturally defined commitment
Identity diffusion: the identity status of a person who is not in the midst of a crisis and who has made no commitment
What makes the formation of an identity during adolescence special is that all the essential elements for the formation of identity are present for the first time in a person’s life. The person now possesses a sufficient level of physical, sexual, cognitive and moral maturity. In conjunction with this, society encourages the individual to take on adult roles, such as worker, parent and citizen (Marcia, 2002).
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5. Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Marcia’s Four Identity Statuses
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6. II. SELF-CONCEPT AND PERSONALITY
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
II. SELF-CONCEPT AND PERSONALITY
Thinking becomes more abstract in adolescence, thus teenagers’ self-concepts are a lot more complex than those of younger children
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7. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
A. Self-Understanding
Self-definitions becoming more and more abstract
Physical traits become less dominant in late adolescence, as most teenagers think of themselves in terms of enduring traits, beliefs, personal philosophy, and moral standards
The adolescent's self-concept becomes more differentiated as teenagers come to see themselves somewhat differently in each of several roles: as a student, with friends, with parents, and in romantic relationships
Once self-concepts are formed, they begin to influence adolescents’ behaviour, in positive and negative ways
Strong self-concept is important to the development of good mental and physical health.
Weak self-concept during adolescence puts girls at risk for depression, poor self-perceived health and obesity, and boys at risk for obesity and inactivity in young adulthood.
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8. How Children and Adolescents Define Themselves
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
How Children and Adolescents Define Themselves
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9. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
B. Gender Roles
Gender-role identity: the gender-related aspects of the psychological self
The masculine and feminine types are the traditional categories; a person in either of these categories sees himself or herself as high in one and low in the other
Androgynous individuals see themselves as having both masculine and feminine traits
Undifferentiated individuals describe themselves as lacking both
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10. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Interaction of Dimensions of Masculinity & Femininity to Produce 4 Types of Gender-Roles
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11. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
C. Self-Esteem
Either an androgynous or a masculine gender-role identity is associated with higher self-esteem among both boys and girls
Cross-cultural research suggests that adoption of an androgynous or masculine orientation by a girl can lead to lower self-esteem (gender roles and gender-role identity are very strongly tied to culture)
The overall trend is a rise in self-esteem through the years of adolescence
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12. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
D. Ethnic Identity
Minority teenagers, especially recent immigrant youth, face the task of creating two identities in adolescence:
Like other teens, they must develop a sense of individual identity that they believe sets them apart from others
In addition, they must develop an ethnic identity that includes self-identification as a member of their specific group, commitment to that group and its values and attitudes, and some attitudes (positive or negative) about the group to which they belong
The process of developing an ethnic identity can be at variance with a social environment that is dominated by the concerns of the majority
Ethnic identity: a sense of belonging to an ethnic group
(continued)
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13. Ethnic Identity (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Ethnic Identity (continued)
Ethnic identity tends to strengthen with age and progresses through phases
younger children tend not to pay attention to or haven’t shown much interest in their ethnic identity
Next, they may start to become acutely aware of the gulf that lies between the values and attitudes that exist within the larger culture and their own culture
Finally they may develop a secure sense of membership and pride in and commitment to their own ethnic group
Bi-cultural identity: personal identification and satisfaction with more than one culture
adolescents who form a combined identity based on strong identification and participation in both their own ethnic culture and the larger culture have the highest self-esteem and the best outcomes
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14. E. Locus of Control & Other Traits
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
E. Locus of Control & Other Traits
Locus of control
External locus: attributes the causes of experiences to factors outside himself
Associated with procrastination and poor academic performance
Often accompanies low self-esteem, introversion, and neuroticism
Uses avoidant coping when faced with problems
Internal locus: believes in personal variables, such as ability and effort, as being responsible for outcomes
Completes tasks and succeeds in school
Optimistic outlook
When external locus is combined with low self-esteem, introversion, and neuroticism, teens (and adults) have many poor social and emotional outcomes
Locus of control: a set of beliefs about the causes of events
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15. CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
III. MORAL DEVELOPMENT
The theorist whose work has had the most powerful impact has been psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg
Theories of moral reasoning have been important in explanations of adolescent antisocial behaviour
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16. A. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
A. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg pioneered the practice of assessing moral reasoning by presenting a subject with a series of dilemmas in story form, each highlighting a specific moral issue, such as the value of human life
After reading the story, the person is asked a series of questions involving his moral judgments
Kohlberg concluded that there were three main levels of moral reasoning, with two sub-stages within each level
What determines the stage or level of a person's moral judgment is not the specific moral choice, but the form of reasoning used to justify that choice
Refer to Table 12.1 (next slide) page 347
(continued)
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17. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
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18. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
Age and Moral Reasoning
The stages are loosely correlated with age
Children usually reason in the first 2 stages
Stages 2 and 3 are commonly seen in adolescence
Refer to Table 12.2 Page 348
Refer to Figure 12.5 (slide 20) Page 348
(continued)
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19. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
Preconventional Reasoning
Judgments are based on sources of authority — usually parents
Stage 1 – punishment and obedience orientation
Stage 2 – individualism, instrumental purpose, and exchange
Refer to Table 12.2 Page 348
Refer to Figure 12.5 (slide 20) Page 348
(continued)
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20. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
Conventional Reasoning
Judgments are based on rules or norms of a group to which the individual belongs
Stage 3 – Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity (the good boy/nice girl stage)
Stage 4 – Social system and conscience (law and order orientation)
(continued)
Refer to Figure 12.5 (next slide) Page 348
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21. Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Reasoning (continued)
Postconventional Reasoning
Judgments are based on emergence of a personal authority
Stage 5 – Social contract orientation
Stage 6 – The universal ethical principles orientation
Refer to Figure 12.5 (next slide) Page 348
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22. Percentage of Reasoning Types by Age
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Percentage of Reasoning Types by Age
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23. B. Causes and Consequences of Moral Development
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
B. Causes and Consequences of Moral Development
Children must have a firm grasp of concrete operational thinking before they can develop or use conventional moral reasoning
Formal operations appear to be necessary for advancement to the postconventional level
The decline of egocentrism is the cognitive-developmental variable that matters most in moral reasoning
Role-taking: the ability to look at a situation from another person’s perspective
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24. C. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
C. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory
Culture and Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg’s approach is too narrow to be considered universal
Non-Western cultures do not fit well with Kohlberg’s approach
Justice is an important moral concept around the world
Justice does not supersede all other moral considerations in non-Western cultures
(continued)
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25. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued)
Moral Reasoning and Emotions
Nancy Eisenberg
Empathy – the ability to identify with others’ emotions is both a cause and consequence of moral development
There are age-related and individual differences in ability to regulate emotions that should be considered
Inability to control emotions triggers antisocial behaviours
Carol Gilligan
An ethic based on caring is as important as ideas about justice
Notes that there are sex differences in moral reasoning
(continued)
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26. Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Criticisms of Kohlberg's Theory (continued)
Moral Reasoning and Behaviour
Theories do not predict the differences between moral reasoning and moral behaviour
Neither adolescents nor adults reason the same way in every situation
Situational factors may determine actual behaviour
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27. D. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
D. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour
Criminality: antisocial behaviour that includes law-breaking
Law breakers are distinguished from those who participate in other antisocial behaviours
Canada’s Youth Criminal Justice Act avoids labelling youth as criminals and focuses on the person’s actions that are malleable to change with rehabilitation and reintegration into society
Youth who commit offences appear to be behind their peers in moral reasoning because of deficits in role-taking skills
(continued)
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28. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued)
Subvarieties of youth who commit offences:
Childhood-onset
Problems are more serious and more likely to persist into adulthood
Temperament and personality play a role
Parents who fail at early attempts to control bad behaviour may worsen the behaviours
Seriously aggressive children can only find support with similar peers
As adolescents, they may exhibit serious disturbances in thinking
They likely display an array of other behavioural problems
(continued)
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29. Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Moral Development and Antisocial Behaviour (continued)
Subvarieties of youth who commit offences:
2. Adolescent-onset:
Problems are typically milder and more transitory, apparently more a reflection of peer-group processes or a testing of the limits of authority than a deeply ingrained behaviour problem
Criminal behaviour is strongly affected by their peers, and changes with the group
Parents who do not monitor sufficiently contribute to criminality
Friendships are not supportive or intimate
Parental monitoring and support can prevent criminality even if the youth’s friends engage in criminal behaviour
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30. Development in the Real World: Youth Criminal Justice
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Development in the Real World: Youth Criminal Justice
Since 1991 overall youth crime rate in Canada fell steadily, levelled off in 2000 and rebounded slightly in 2003
The peak age for crime rate is 15 for females and 17 for males
Males have a higher crime rate at every age
Youth are more likely to be victims of crimes committed by other youth
Females are more likely to be victims of violent crime than males
Two socializing factors that predict youth crime rates are peer influences and parenting style
Canada’s new Youth Criminal Justice Act has three main objectives:
Prevent crime
Rehabilitate and reintegrate offenders into society
Ensure meaningful consequences for offences committed by young people
Refer to “Development in the Real World” page 354
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31. IV. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
IV. SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS
Adolescents’ ideas about other people and their understanding of social situations are more complex than those of children
These advances in interpersonal understanding lead to changes in family and peer relationships
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32. A. Relationships with Parents
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
A. Relationships with Parents
An increase in conflict in the great majority of families with teenagers does not necessarily signify a major disruption in the quality of the parent-child relationship
Teenagers' underlying emotional attachment to their parents remain strong on average
A teenager's sense of well-being or happiness is more strongly correlated with the quality of her attachment to her parents than with the quality of her relationships with peers
(continued)
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33. Relationships with Parents (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships with Parents (continued)
Parenting Styles
Authoritative parenting style is consistently associated with more positive outcomes
Parental involvement in education and extracurricular activities is important for teenagers
Family Structure
Adolescents in households including a step-parent are, on average, somewhat less well-adjusted than those who live with two biological parents
Adolescent girls show more distress when parents divorce than boys show
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34. B. Relationships with Peers
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
B. Relationships with Peers
Friendships
Shared activities and interests continue to be important elements in the selection of friends in adolescence
A similarity of psychological characteristics and attitudes takes on new significance
Teens' friendships are increasingly intimate, in the sense that adolescent friends share more and more of their inner feelings and secrets and are more knowledgeable about each other's feelings
(continued)
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35. B. Relationships with Peers (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
B. Relationships with Peers (continued)
Friendships
Loyalty and faithfulness become more valued characteristics of friendship
Adolescent friendships are more stable than those of younger children
Teens often choose friends who are committed to the same activities they are—e.g. computer and video games
(continued)
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36. Relationships with Peers (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships with Peers (continued)
Peer groups:
Peer groups become relatively stable in adolescence
If the discrepancy between their own ideas and those of their friends becomes too great, teens are more likely to switch to a more compatible group of friends
When explicit peer pressure is exerted, it is likely to be pressure toward positive activities, such as school involvement, and away from misconduct
Peer influence is neither all-powerful, nor uniformly negative
(continued)
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37. Relationships with Peers (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships with Peers (continued)
Changes in Peer Group Structure
Clique: four to six young people who appear to be strongly attached to one another
Crowd: a combination of cliques, which includes both males and females
Crowds are organized into a fairly clear, widely understood pecking order
By late adolescence, social groups become mixed in gender, often composed of groups of dating couples
Mutual friendships and dating pairs become more central to social interactions in later adolescence than are cliques or crowds
(continued)
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38. Research Report: The Social Aspects of Electronic Communication
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Research Report: The Social Aspects of Electronic Communication
Canada’s youth are the first generation to be raised on cable and satellite television, cell phones with video and mobile Internet communication – instantaneous access to information
Cell phones afford teens more independence while providing increased reassurance to parents about their child’s safety and whereabouts
Most home computers were purchased by parents to help teens keep up with their peers
Increasingly, students prefer the internet to library books to gather information (62% of grade 4 students, >90% of grade 9 students)
Youth show significant use of the internet for social purposes with this use increasing with age
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39. Relationships with Peers (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships with Peers (continued)
Romantic Relationships:
Most teens display a gradual progression from same-sex friendships to heterosexual relationships
The actual progression toward romantic relationships happens faster for girls
Skills gained in relating to opposite-sex peers and in mixed-gender groups prepare teens for heterosexual romantic relationships
Social competence in a variety of relationships predicts the ease of the progression to romantic relationships
Girls seem to want more psychological intimacy from these early relationships than their partners do
(continued)
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40. Relationships with Peers (continued)
CHAPTER TWELVE: SOCIAL AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Relationships with Peers (continued)
Romantic Relationships (continued):
Homosexual teenagers today are more comfortable about revealing their sexual orientation to their parents and to their peers than was true in past cohorts
Homosexual teenagers become aware of same-sex attraction at around age 11 or 12, which is roughly the same time when heterosexual peers begin to notice their attraction to the opposite sex
Many homosexual teens go through a period of sexual discovery that begins with experimentation with heterosexual relationships
By age 15 or so, most have classified themselves as primarily heterosexual or committed to a gay, lesbian, or bisexual orientation
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