1. Cell Cycle and Cellular Division

2. THINK ABOUT IT When a living thing grows, what happens to its cells?
What is there about growth that requires cells to divide and reproduce themselves?

3. Limits to Cell Size
What are some of the difficulties a cell faces as it increases in size?

4. Limits to Cell Size
What are some of the difficulties a cell faces as it increases in size?
The larger a cell becomes, the more demands the cell places on its DNA. In addition, a larger cell is less efficient in moving nutrients and waste materials across its cell membrane.

5. Information “Overload”
Living cells store critical information in DNA.
As a cell grows, that information is used to build the molecules needed for cell growth.
As size increases, the demands on that information grow as well. If a cell were to grow without limit, an “information crisis” would occur.

6. Information “Overload”
Compare a cell to a growing town. The town library has a limited number of books. As the town grows, these limited number of books are in greater demand, which limits access.
A growing cell makes greater demands on its genetic “library.” If the cell gets too big, the DNA would not be able to serve the needs of the growing cell.

7. Exchanging Materials
Food, oxygen, and water enter a cell through the cell membrane. Waste products leave in the same way.
The rate at which this exchange takes place depends on the surface area of a cell.
The rate at which food and oxygen are used up and waste products are produced depends on the cell’s volume.
The ratio of surface area to volume is key to understanding why cells must divide as they grow.

8. Ratio of Surface Area to Volume
Imagine a cell shaped like a cube. As the length of the sides of a cube increases, its volume increases faster than its surface area, decreasing the ratio of surface area to volume.
If a cell gets too large, the surface area of the cell is not large enough to get enough oxygen and nutrients in and waste out.

9. Traffic Problems
To use the town analogy again, as the town grows, more and more traffic clogs the main street. It becomes difficult to get information across town and goods in and out.
Similarly, a cell that continues to grow would experience “traffic” problems. If the cell got too large, it would be more difficult to get oxygen and nutrients in and waste out.

10. Division of the Cell
Before a cell grows too large, it divides into two new “daughter” cells in a process called cell division.
Before cell division, the cell copies all of its DNA.
It then divides into two “daughter” cells. Each daughter cell receives a complete set of DNA.
Cell division reduces cell volume. It also results in an increased ratio of surface area to volume, for each daughter cell.

11. Cell Division and Reproduction
How do asexual and sexual reproduction compare?
The production of genetically identical offspring from a single parent is known as asexual reproduction.
Offspring produced by sexual reproduction inherit some of their genetic information from each parent.

12. Asexual Reproduction
Asexual reproduction is reproduction that involves a single parent producing an offspring. The offspring produced are, in most cases, genetically identical to the single cell that produced them.
Asexual reproduction is a simple, efficient, and effective way for an organism to produce a large number of offspring.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic single- celled organisms and many multicellular organisms can reproduce asexually.

13. Sexual Reproduction
In sexual reproduction, offspring are produced by the fusion of two sex cells (gametes) – one from each of two parents. These fuse into a single cell before the offspring can grow.
The offspring produced inherit some genetic information from both parents.
Most animals and plants, and many single- celled organisms, reproduce sexually.

14. Comparing Sexual and Asexual Reproduction

15. Chromosomes
The genetic information that is passed on from one generation of cells to the next is carried by chromosomes.
Every cell must copy its genetic information before cell division begins.
Each daughter cell gets its own copy of that genetic information.
Cells of every organism have a specific number of chromosomes.

16. Prokaryotic Chromosomes
Prokaryotic cells lack nuclei. Instead, their DNA molecules are found in the cytoplasm.
Most prokaryotes contain a single, circular DNA molecule, or chromosome, that contains most of the cell’s genetic information.

17. The Prokaryotic Cell Cycle
Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction during which two genetically identical cells are produced.
For example, bacteria reproduce by binary fission.

18. Eukaryotic Chromosomes
In eukaryotic cells, chromosomes are located in the nucleus, and are made up of chromatin.

19. Chromatin is composed of DNA and histone proteins.

20. DNA coils around histone proteins to form nucleosomes.

21. The nucleosomes interact with one another to form coils and supercoils that make up chromosomes.

22. The Cell Cycle
What are the main events of the cell cycle?

23. Cell Cycle:
Mitotic Division is done by all other cells but reproductive.
The cell cycle is mitosis, G1, S, G2 . (Add)…This is followed by cytokinesis.
(Correct this part in your outline)

24. The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
The eukaryotic cell cycle consists of four phases: G1, S, G2, and M.
Interphase is the time between cell divisions. It is a period of growth that consists of the G1, S, and G2 phases. The M phase is the period of cell division.

25. Cell cycle differs in length among different cells types.
Ex. Plants take between hours to complete
Animals take between hours to complete but it can be much shorter
Ex. Fruit flies is fast for animals (8 minutes)

26. Note: human nerve cells and some muscle cells never complete a cycle (stays in G1 phase)
During interphase (most of cell’s life) 90-95%

27. G1 Phase (intense growth)

28. G1 Phase: Cell Growth
In the G1 phase, cells increase in size and synthesize new proteins and organelles.

29. S phase (synthesis) (DNA replication)

30. S Phase: DNA Replication
In the S (or synthesis) phase, new DNA is synthesized when the chromosomes are replicated.

31. G2 phase (growth and preparation for division)

32. G2 Phase: Preparing for Cell Division
In the G2 phase, many of the organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced.

33. M Phase: Cell Division
In eukaryotes, cell division occurs in two stages: mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is the division of the cell nucleus.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

34. No cell lives forever.
Cells undergo only so many reproductions then die (certain code in genes may control the #, human cells average 50 times)

35. Recall that an exact copy of DNA in a cell is done in during replication.
With this copied DNA that that cell now has twice the normal # of chromosomes.

36. Cell Division by Mitosis

37. The Stages of the Cell Cycle