1. Theories and universal motivators
Motivation
Theories and universal motivators

3. Motivation
A need or desire that energizes behavior and directs it towards a goal.
4 perspectives psychologists use to try to understand and explain motivation.

4. Motivation – Instinct / evolutionary
Instinct Theory: we are motivated by our inborn automated behaviors.
Instincts – complex unlearned behavior, fixed pattern across a species
But instincts only explain why we do a small fraction of our behaviors.
Popular during the early 20th century

5. Drive Reduction Theory
Our behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
Our body wants to maintain homeostasis. (balanced internal state)
When we are not in homeostasis, we have a need that creates a drive.
NEED – eliminate waste
DRIVE – urge to go
BEHAVIOR – go to the bathroom
NEED – food/energy
DRIVE - hunger
BEHAVIOR - eating

6. Drive Reduction Theory
Incentives: + or – stimuli that lure or repel us.
Influenced by learning and experience.
Need + Incentive = very strong drive
EG: Food deprivation + smell of baking bread = very strong hunger drive

7. Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal.
Boredom vs. stress
We are “sensation – seekers”
Well fed animals leave shelter to explore
Brain mechanisms reward learning

8. Yerkes-Dodson Law
The Yerkes-Dodson Law says we perform best under the optimal amount of arousal. (Like Goldilocks)
Not too much, not too little.

9. Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.
We are driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.
Not universally fixed  culturally fluid
Personal Maslow Activity

10. Hunger – sex - belonging
3 universal motivators
Hunger – sex - belonging

11. HUNGER

12. Biological Basis of Hunger
Hunger does NOT come from our stomach.
It comes from our…
Brain
What part of the brain?
The Hypothalamus
Remember the 4 Fs! (feeding)

13. Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
When stimulated it makes you hungry.
When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.
When stimulated you feel full.
When lesioned you will never feel full again.

14. Set Point Theory The hypothalamus acts like a thermostat.
Wants to maintain a stable weight.
Activates the lateral when you diet and activates the ventromedial when you start to gain weight.
Leptin theory - protein secreted by fat cells; when abundant causes brain to increase metabolism & decrease hunger
Slow, sustained changes can alter your body’s set point

15. Body Chemistry Glucose The hormone insulin converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.

16. evolution and hunger
Natural wariness of unfamiliar foods extends to novel foods.
Learn to appreciate them over time.
Spices – hot climates use them to inhibit bacteria in foods
Lactose tolerance for animal herding/milk based societies
Pregnancy – protect developing embryo from toxins.
Taste preferences – starches, sugars and carbs boost serotonin levels  feels good to eat them!

17. Psychology of Hunger
Internal(physiology) vs External (attractiveness/availability of foods) cues
The Garcia Effect-learned taste aversions

18. Culture and Hunger
Conditioning/Social Learning Theory – exposure to food leads to taste preferences

19. Dog
Mice Wine
Fried Frog Legs
Criadillas- bull testicles.

20. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa
Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food).

21. EATING DISORDERS Anorexia Nervosa
Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
See themselves as fat.
Vast majority are women.

22. Obesity
Severely overweight to the point where it causes health issues.
Mostly eating habits but some people are predisposed towards obesity.
Body is designed to store fat/energy
Brain says “High energy/sugar/fat food… EAT IT!”

23. Sexual Motivation Sex is natural.
Without sex, none of us would be here.
How do scientists (or you) find out about sex?
YOU ASK!!!!!!

24. Kinsey’s Studies
Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s).
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.

25. Masters and Johnson Study
In the 1960’s William Masters and Virginia Johnson set out to explore the physiology of sex.
382 females and 312 males.
After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

26. Mapped out the Sexual Response Cycle
Initial Excitement
Plateau Phase
Orgasm
Resolution Phase (with refractory period).

27. hormones Initiate development of male or female characteristics
Activate sexual behavior
Changes throughout the life-cycle
Interest in sex/dating (puberty)
Decline in later years (menopause)
Females: estrogen
Peaks during ovulation
Levels cycle monthly
Males: testosterone
More constant/consistent levels
Hormones are the gas that make the car go!

28. Sexual dysfunction Dysfunction – impairment of arousal or performance
4 in 10 people experience some type of sexual dysfunction
Behavior/talk therapy
Paraphilia – arousal directed in unusual ways
Exhibitionism
Fetish
Pedophilia
Classified as a disorder IF
Causes distress
Harm or risk of harm to others

29. Psychology of sex
Both hunger & sex are influenced by cultural expectations.
People can find sexually explicit images either pleasing or disturbing- but they are none the less biologically arousing.

30. Psychology of sex The problem with Pornography
Habituation – (tolerance) more stimulation is needed over time to induce arousal
Leads to unrealistic expectations and devaluation of one’s partner
Both men and women experience sexual arousal when seeing, hearing or reading sexually explicit stimuli
Includes imaginings
Dreams
Fantasies

31. We have discussed the energizing of sexual motivation but have yet to discuss its direction:
Sexual Orientation
An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.

32. How is Sexual Orientation Determined
There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.
Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay than if they were raised by hetero parents.
Then it is likely biologically determined.

33. The Brain
Simon LeVay discovered that there is a cluster of cells in the hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men than in heterosexual women or homosexual men.

34. Prenatal Environment
Current research seems to point to the hormonal levels in the prenatal environment.
We have created homosexual male fruit flies and lesbian sheep!!!

35. THE NEED TO BELONG Humans are social animals! Benefits of Belonging
Boosted chances of survival  reproduction, raising offspring, protection (hunting and fighting)
Our “happiness” or life satisfaction is often judged based on our close relationships
Self-esteem: how valued and accepted we feel

36. The need to belong Gaining Acceptance Ostracism
Conformity to group expectations and correct behavior
“we”  form groups
Family
Community
Work
Sports, hobbies, etc.
Familiarity
Becomes painful to leave people you spend a lot of time with (trips)
Social exclusion to control behavior
Exile, solitary confinement, imprisonment, time out, silent treatment, etc.
Love is a natural painkiller – isolation causes actual pain
Same brain regions as physical pain
Use the same words for emotional and physical pain

37. Achievement Motivation
What motivates us to work?
Intrinsic Motivators
Extrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.
Rewards that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..)
Work great in the short run.

38. Achievement motivation
Where would one stand to practice if they had high achievement motivation?
Those with high achievement motivation will choose tasks that are moderately difficult. Not too hard because they want to achieve. Not too easy because they want to feel good about themselves.

39. Overjustification effect
Studies show that if you externally reward someone (excessively) for something they love doing, they will lose their intrinsic desire for doing it.
Alex Rodriguez earns 27.5 million dollars per year. Does he love the game??

40. Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory X
Theory Y
Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.
Think employees are Extrinsically Motivated.
Only interested in Maslow’s lower needs.
Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
Interested in Maslow’s higher needs.

41. When Motives Conflict Approach-Approach Conflict
when we have 2 desirable things to choose from. Both Beyoncé and Tyra Banks want to date you.

42. When Motives Conflict Approach – Avoidance Conflict
Both options have their benefits and drawbacks. Example, telling your wife that her hair looks bad. The good is she’ll fix it. The bad is she might be mad at you for a few hours.

43. When Motives Conflict Avoidance – Avoidance Conflict
You must choose between 2 equally unattractive options.