1. LEARNING
Chapter 4
Pg 138 to 168
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2. Two basic mechanisms of learning
1. Association: is learning that two somethings go together. Ex. Thunder follows lightning. Fork goes with Knife.
2. Differentiation: Is learning to distinguish one something from another. Ex. Learning that green means go and red means stop.

3. Classical Conditioning

4. Pavlov

5. LEARNING IS BASED ON AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN STIMULI AND RESPONSE

6. Bell rings, students leave!
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)
Stimulus elicits a Response [S  R]
EXAMPLE:
Bell rings, students leave!
REFLEX: Automatic, unlearned response
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING IS A TYPE OF LEARNING PROCESS THOUGH WHICH A FEFLEX BECOMES ASSOCIATED WITH A PREVIOUSLY NEUTRLA STIMULUS.

10. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Any stimulus that automatically and reliably produces a particular response such as a reflex.
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a response similar to that elicited by a UCS.
Unconditioned response (UCR)
The automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned response (CR)
The learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

11. THE FORMULA IN OTHER WORDS
An unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response
UCS  UCR
NS + UCS  UCR
A neutral stimulus paired with an unconditioned stimulus elicits an unconditioned response
A conditioned stimulus elicits a conditioned response
CS  CR

13. Forms of Classical Conditioning
Delayed conditioning
The most effective version classical conditioning, in which CS onset precedes UCS onset and the offset of both stimuli is typically at the same time.
Simultaneous conditioning
A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which both CS and UCS onset and offset occur at the same time.
Trace conditioning
A less effective version of classical conditioning, in which CS onset and offset precede UCS onset.

14. Which Works Best??

15. Extinction
Discontinuation (extinguishing) of the UCS.
What happens when Pavlov stopped providing food when bell was rung. How long until dog stopped reacting to bell?
Is there a solution to Pavlov’s problem?
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of an extinguished CR after the passage of time.
Responses are not unlearned or forgotten and can appear again in the future.

16. Predictability of the Unconditioned Stimulus
The crucial factor in classical conditioning is the consistency with which the CS predicts the occurrence of the UCS.

17. Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination
Stimulus generalization : tendency of an organism to respond to similar stimulus.
Discrimination : The ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
Pavlov’s dogs distinguish btw circles. When unable dogs became irritable. Learned Helplessness.

18. Nature v Classical Conditioning
It can be extremely difficult or even impossible to establish certain conditioned responses.
For example: Ever chow down then get sick then never want to eat the food again? What about eating pizza then breaking your finger…will you never eat that food again???

19. Humans usually learn taste and food aversions associated with sickness, but not when eating the good is associated with accidents such as breaking a leg.

20. ~BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER 1904 - 1990
Operant Conditioning
“The major problems of the world today can be solved only if we improve our understanding of human behavior" About Behaviorism (1974)
~BURRHUS FREDERIC SKINNER

21. Operant Conditioning
Reward
Punishment

22. Behaviorism
B.F. Skinner
Was the dominant theory in American psychology from the 1930s through 1950s.

23. Operant Conditioning
The study of how behavior is affected by its consequences.
Investigates the learning of voluntary responses.
TERMS
Operant Behavior: organism is “operating” on the world around it bringing about some kind of change in the environment.
Operant Conditioning: Process by which an operant behavior becomes attached to a specific conditioned stimulus.

24. Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R-->S learning
It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again.

25. Shaping
A step by step process used to teach complex behaviors that are successive and approximations of target behavior
EX- Skinner’s Box

26. Operant Conditioning

27. Reinforcement- Increases desired Behavior
Primary Reinforcers: necessary for living ( food and water)
Secondary Reinforcers: Valued because its linked to primary reinforcers.
Timing
1. Constant Reinforcement reward for each performance. Rapid Learning.
2. Partial Reinforcement- Reward on some occasion but not on others. Learning harder to extinguish.

28. Positive reinforcement
An operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is strengthened because it results in presentation of an *appetitive stimulus; also known as reward training.
*An instinctive physical desire, especially one for food or drink
Encouraging desired behavior through rewards
Negative reinforcement
Something “aversive” is removed, goes away, or doesn’t happen again whenever the desired behavior is performed.
Terminating of something painful by removal or cessation

29. Positive punishment
An operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is weakened or suppressed because it results in presentation of an aversive stimulus; also known as passive avoidance training.
Getting spanked for being bad
Negative punishment
An operant conditioning contingency in which behavior is weakened or suppressed because it results in removal of an appetitive stimulus; also known as omission training.
Taking freely given privileges away: Grounding!

30. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Punishment Positive Negative
Chocolate Bar
Electric Shock
Excused from Chores
No TV privileges
Negative

31. The concepts of reinforcement and punishment derive from Thorndike’s law of effect, which as we saw in Chapter 1 states:
Any behavior that is followed by a satisfying state of affairs tends to be repeated (strengthened), and
Any behavior that is followed by an unsatisfying or annoying state of affairs tends not to be repeated (weakened or suppressed).
The first half of Thorndike's law of effect corresponds to positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement; the second half corresponds to positive punishment and negative punishment.

32. Skinner strongly favored positive reinforcement over punishment, because the atmosphere it creates tells the organism what to do.
Punishment, in contrast to reinforcement, only tells the organism what not to do and also has a long list of undesirable side effects, especially if the punishment is corporal.
Punishment may be necessary in the case of dangerous and harmful behavior, but it is best used in conjunction with positive reinforcement for acceptable behavior.

33. Learned Helplessness
Prevent a dog from escaping electric shocks, and it will stop trying to get away.
Applications for abused women and children

34. Cognitive Learning A Contemporary View Rooted in the Past
Even in the early days of learning research, there was a view that is now widely accepted:
Higher organisms are far from passive points of experience and simple associations between stimuli and responses
They actively interact with their environment and think about and interpret what they observe.
They acquire, rather than associations, knowledge.

35. Learning in the absence of Reinforcement
Yet another basic form of learning that requires no reinforcement and occurs in humans and many other species is observational learning.
Learning by observation is “actively judgmental and constructive rather than a mechanical copying.” (Bandura, 1974)
Observational learning = learning by imitation.
Cognitive learning as a result of watching others perform a behavior; extends to learning by listening or reading.