1. Module: Earth & Space
August 31, 2010

2. The Lithosphere & The Hydrosphere
Observatory: Chapter 6
Pages

3. Handout: Activity 24 Lithosphere: Minerals and Rocks

4. General Information It is 6300 km from the Earth’s surface its centre.
The hard shell is, on average, 100 km thick

5. Lithosphere The lithosphere is the hard shell.
It is consists of both the crust and the top part of the upper mantel.
It contains all the minerals and rocks.

6. Minerals
Minerals are inorganic substances that cannot be made. (not from animals nor plants)
With over 4000 minerals, each have certain characteristics or properties defined by their composition.
Cubic shape → salt (NaCl)
Gold (Au), Silver (Ag), Tin (Sn), etc.
Quartz → silicone dioxide (SiO2)

7. Mineral Classification
Minerals can be classified according to:
1) Shape:
– atomic structure
2) Colour:
– An ‘idiochromatic’ mineral is a specific colour since a
certain element is present in its composition.
(azurite, ruby, etc.)
- An ‘allochromatic’ mineral is colourless when they are
chemically pure.
(quartz, diamonds, etc.)

8. Example: Allochromatic Mineral
Quartz

9. Mineral Classification
3) Transparency:
- how much light is able to pass through
(transparent, translucent, opaque)
4) Hardness:
- depends on strength of bonds between atoms
- Mohs scale measures resistance to scratching
(0 is softest (talc) and 10 is hardest (diamond))

10. Mineral Classification
5) Streak:
- after mineral is rubbed onto unglazed porcelain
(idochromatic leaves brightly coloured powder)
(allochromatic leaves white or pale powder)

11. Observatory Textbook Page 214 #1, 4, 5, 6, 7
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 214 #1, 4, 5, 6, 7

12. Mining Process 1) Locate the mineral.
2) Extract from lithosphere as an ‘ore’.
Ore is a rock that contains the mineral.
Deposit refers to a large quantity a mineral available for mining.
3) Mineral is separated from ore.
Each ore is processed differently.
Gold is crushed, treated with chemicals and is melted. (500 kg ore yields 6 g)

13. Type of Mines 1) Open-pit mine Deposit is found near the surface
Upper layers are removed by drilling machines, excavators, and dump trucks

14. Type of Mines 2) Mine Drift Deposit is too far below the surface
Vertical shafts with drifts that run alongside the vein of the deposit
Each drift needs air ducts and water supply lines

15. Rocks Minerals can cluster together heterogeneously to form rocks.
There are two presses to form rocks:
1) Neptunism: by pressure of water
2) Plutonism: by volcano

16. Rock Types 1. Igneous Rocks 2. Sedimentary Rocks 3. Metamorphic Rocks
Formed from solidified magma, either extrusive or intrusive
2. Sedimentary Rocks
Formed from eroded rock fragments to combine with plant and animal remains under pressure
3. Metamorphic Rocks
Formed from the transformation of igneous or sedimentary rocks into metamorphic rock under high temperature and pressure
Properties and appearance will change

17. What rock is it?
igneous
sedimentary
metamorphic

18. Observatory Textbook Page 214 #2, 3, 8
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 214 #2, 3, 8

19. Handout: Activity 25 Lithosphere: Soil

20. Soil Why does it take 200 years to make a 1 cm layer of soil?
The solid part of the Earth’s crust gets worn down by rain frost, and wind, making large rock fragments.
Fragments get mixed with plant and animal remains.
The mixture undergoes both complex chemical and physical changes.

21. Soil Horizon Soil forms in thick parallel layers to the ground.
They are distinct by its colour, composition, and texture.

22. Layers of Soil Horizon 1. Organic Matter / Litter
Contains mostly humus which is decomposing plants and animals
2. Top Soil / Surface Soil
Mix of humus and water-soluble minerals
Plants are supported by this layer
3. Subsoil
Mostly small mineral particles

23. Layers of Soil Horizon (ctd)
4. Fragmented Rock / Substratum
Formed by the breakdown of parent rock
5. Unaltered Parent Rock / Bedrock
Starting point for soil formation

24. What Layer is it?
litter
topsoil
subsoil
Fragmented rock
bedrock

25. What is the function of soil?
1. absorbs, filters, and stores water
2. home to small living organisms and microorganisms for decomposing
3. stores nutrients, minerals, and air

26. What makes good/fertile soil?
1. enough minerals or water-soluble nutrients
2. enough moisture
3. proper soil pH
Too acidic or alkaline mineral transfer to roots will be poor

27. Observatory Textbook Page 214 #9, 10
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 214 #9, 10

28. “Bill Nye the Science Guy” Erosion

29. Permafrost
Approximately 50% of Canada is covered by land that has been frozen for at least two years, known an permafrost.
It can be found in the north and at high altitudes.

30. In some areas, the top layer or active layer can thaw in the summer and have a short growing season.
Homes in these regions are built directly on the permafrost, past the active layer.

31. Observatory Textbook Page 215 #12, 13, 14
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 215 #12, 13, 14

32. Handout: Activity 26 Energy Resources

33. Energy Resources
The lithosphere provides resources used to provide energy for heating, manufacturing, communications, transportation, etc.
Energy resources come in the form of:
1. Fossil Fuels
2. Uranium
3. Geothermics

34. 1. Fossil Fuels Coal, natural gas, and oil
Oil and natural gas come from small marine animals and algae that have liquified under sediments over time and pressure.
Coal comes from terrestrial plants that under layers of sediments, time, and pressure turn into a solid.

35. Burning fossil fuels produces the following by-products:
Burning fossil fuels yields thermal energy that can be transformed into either electrical or mechanical energy.
Burning fossil fuels produces the following by-products:
CO2 → greenhouse gas
SO2 → acid rain
NOx → acid rain

36. 2. Uranium
Splitting of the nucleus of this radioactive element (nuclear fission)
Nuclear fission releases heat (nuclear energy)
1 handful of uranium produces the amount of energy equivalent to kg of coal!!!

37. Waste from contaminated material can be radioactive for hundreds of years
Waste is cooled in pools and than buried in old mines or in custom-made concrete pits

38. 3. Geothermics Geothermal energy comes from Earth’s internal heat
Fluid is circulated underground from hot to cold
Heat can be converted into electricity and heat buildings
Used in areas where there are hot rocks near the surface or hot water goes to the surface
***geothermal house photo

40. Observatory Textbook Page 215 #15, 16
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 215 #15, 16

41. Handout: Activity 27 Hydrosphere and Energy Resources

42. The Hydrosphere
The water that makes up Earth’s outer layer is the hydrosphere.
Facts:
Two thirds of the surface is covered by water
2.5% of it is fresh water
79% by volume of that fresh water is found in glaciers

43. Inland Waters Inland waters are water found on the continents.
It is made from snow or rain that goes into streams, then ground, and flowing into rivers and lakes.
Fact:
1 rain drop of water can enter the ground and then exit in a river 100 km away.

44. St. Lawrence Watershed

45. Watersheds
They are areas of land where inland waters empty into the same larger body of water.
(aka catchment area or drainage basin)
Boundaries are formed by nearby mountains, hills or higher ground.
The slope of the land will cause water to flow in one direction.
They may have many subwatersheds.

46. What Affects water flow?
1. Topography - shape or slope of terrain
2. Geology – type, depth, rock structure
3. Climate – rain or snow, winds, temperature
4. Vegetation – density and diversity
5. Agricultural, Industrial, & Urban Development - dams

47. Observatory Textbook Page 215 #20 - 23
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 215 #

48. Oceans There are 5 oceans:
Pacific Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Arctic Ocean
Southern Ocean
Ocean waters are moved by currents that go around the world.
These currents are affected by temperature and salinity.

50. Factors affecting temperature
Depth
Sunlight warms 0m to -200m (mixed layer) at approximately 28°C
Temperature drops below -200m in a transition zone (thermocline) from approx. 28°C to 5°C
It is dark below thermocline; temperature can go to 4°C

51. Factors affecting temperature
Seasons
Winter loses heat stored from summer
Latitude
At equator, mean temperature between 25°C to 28°C
In temperate zones, between 12°C to 17°C

52. Salinity
Seawater hits against the lithosphere to dissolve salts that provides water with its salinity, concentration of salt in water.
Average ocean salinity is 3.4 to 3.7%.
Fact:
At glaciers, seawater is more dilute at 3% salinity.
At the Red Sea, seawater is at 4% salinity.

53. Ocean circulation
Water in oceans move because of waves, tides, and ocean circulation by ocean currents.
1. Ocean currents
Move seawater in a certain direction
Surface currents are made by winds moving the first 400m of ocean water
Subsurface current are created by the varying density of water at depths greater than 800m.
Density will vary by temperature and salinity

54. Ocean circulation 2. Ocean circulation
From combining surface and subsurface current

55. Observatory Textbook Page 216 #24 - 28
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 216 #

56. Cryosphere Solid water on the Earth’s surface form the cryosphere.
Pack ice
Glaciers
Frozen lakes and rivers
Expanses of snow
Ice in permafrost

57. Pack Ice
Upper layer of water frozen on Arctic Ocean and around Antarctica
Broken off ice sheets make ice floes
Will shrink and grow according to season
Glaciers
Mass of ice formed by compressed snow on land
Largest ones are on the ice caps
Will break off to form icebergs

58. How does the climate affect ice sheets?
Surface ice sheets melts, seeps down causing a slippery surface, and breaks off into ocean
Sea levels rise
Fresh water released into Norwegian Sea and mixes with Gulf Stream
Density of water in the Gulf Stream changes and not sink as easily

59. Observatory Textbook Page 216 #29 - 32
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 216 #

60. Energy Sources
Hydraulic energy, energy from water, can be produced using:
1. Rivers and waterfalls
2. Waves and currents

61. Rivers and Waterfalls (Hydroelectric dams)
Dams are built across a river to hold water
Water level rises in large reservoirs
Gates in dam open to let water pass through turbines
Turbines are attached to alternators that convert mechanical energy into electrical energy

62. Rivers and Waterfalls (Hydroelectric dams)
Environmental concerns:
Greenhouse gas (little compared to thermal energy)
Flooding of forests
Mercury converted by bacteria into methylmercury (toxic)
Bioaccumulation of methylmercury
St. James Project

63. Waves and Ocean Currents
Buoys designed to go up and own with waves, thereby activity turbines
Underwater turbines, similar to wind turbines

64. Observatory Textbook Page 216 #33
Questions
Observatory Textbook Page 216 #33