1. Audience

2. What is Audience and Why does it Matter?
Your audience consists of the people who would read your paper.
In order to be effectively persuasive, we need to be able to adapt to our audience.
Consider the following topic:
The Effects of Smoking.
What types of readers would read an article on this topic?

3. Audience
From your list, you may have noticed that you perhaps listed people who feel smoking should be stopped (people affected by smoking) and people who would like smoking to continue (tobacco companies).
Depending on the stand the writer takes, these two types of audience members could prove to be difficult for the writer to persuade.
What we’ve noticed is that readers may be categorized by how much they are likely to agree with the writer.

4. Audience:
Aside from personal demographics, audiences can be divided up into three categories:
Friendly (those in agreement with or likely to be in agreement with the writer’s position)
Neutral (those who are unsure but could be persuaded with some work)
Hostile (those who oppose or are likely to oppose the writer’s position)
When we write arguments, we need to assume that each of these types of readers is interested in what we have to say. We therefore need to make efforts to appeal to each of these types of audience members.

5. Audience: Read “What the Antismoking Zealots Really Crave.”
Try to determine what audience or audiences this writer is trying to appeal to.
If this writer’s essay were read by friendly, neutral, and hostile readers, how well do you think each of these readers would be persuaded? Why do you think that?
Form groups of 3-4 people and discuss your answers then share what your group’s ideas with the class.

6. The Hostile Audience and Addressing Opposition
One of the most effective ways of persuading hostile readers is through addressing viewpoints that oppose your position. This doesn’t mean that you should contradict yourself. It does mean that by doing this, you can show how opposing ideas, even though they may be valid, aren’t as convincing as your own.
Doing this is called rebutting your opponent’s arguments and if handled correctly, it can greatly improve your writing.

7. How are Rebuttals Written?
A rebuttal paragraph in an essay basically has two parts.
The first part simply describes your opponent’s position or objection accurately.
The second part then explains why this idea isn’t as good as your idea.
Consider the following rebuttal paragraph from the essay on organic food from your Quick Access book.

8. Example: Part 1 of the paragraph
Some critics point out that organic products aren’t more nutritious than regular ones. Physician Sanjay Gupta, for example, finds the medical evidence for nutritional examples “thin” (60). The Tufts University Health and Nutrition Letter also reports that the research on nutritional benefits is mixed, with one important study showing “no overall differences” (“Is Organic” 8).

9. Example: Part 2 of the paragraph
Nutritional value, which includes qualities such as vitamins and other beneficial substances, is a different measure than food safety. At this point, it seems that nutrition alone is not a sufficient reason to buy organic foods. Perhaps future research will prove otherwise; a 2007 study, for example, showed that organically raised tomatoes have higher levels of flavonoids, nutrients that have many health benefits (Mitchell). In the meantime, however, environmental quality and, most importantly, avoiding chemicals remain convincing reasons to purchase organic food, even if the same cannot yet be claimed for nutrition.

10. Rebuttals:
Notice how the example described the opponent’s argument and even though it was valid, still showed that the writer’s idea of buying organic food was better.

11. An Exercise:
Take a look at your current version of your research paper. Outline the argument (thesis and reasons) that you have thus far.
Pair up with a partner.
Read your basic argument to your partner. Don’t stop until you have read the whole thing. Your partner should not interrupt you.
As you are reading your argument, your partner should be imagining what someone who disagrees with your thesis might say and what arguments against your thesis he or she might offer.
Your partner should, after you are finished, State the objections to your argument that he or she has thought up.
Respond to each of these objections.
When finished, switch roles.

12. Writing:
When you are finished with the exercise, choose the best objections that you can think of that someone opposing your thesis would mention.
Write each of these down.
Select one and write a rebuttal paragraph in which you describe the objection and then argue against it.
Save this to aid you in drafting the next version of your paper Friday.