1. AP Chemistry Zumdahl Notes, 9th ed.
A Brief Collection of notes, Chapter 2
Feel free to open these files and annotate as you feel the need…this is
for your success.

2. Atoms, Molecules, Ions Early History of Chemistry (read 43-44);
Fundamental Chemical Laws
Antoine Lavoisier: considered the father of modern chemistry, wrote the first “modern” chemistry textbook; regarded measurement as the essential part of chemistry, arrived at law of conservation of mass…yeah!
Proust: law of definite proportion: a given cpd always has the same proportion of elements by mass; led way for Dalton to come back with the concept of atoms/tiny individual particles as well as law of multiple proportions (simple whole number ratios in cpds)

3. Atoms, Molecules Ions Dalton’s atomic theory
Elements made of atoms
Atoms of a given element are identical; atoms of different elements are different in some fundamental way
When atoms of different elements combine, a new cpd is formed, with the same makeup of atoms/elements
Chemical reactions reorganize the atoms of the elements present, they do not create new elements/atoms
Dalton tried making table of atomic masses; had some errors but was first idea of using table for this information
Avogadro’s hypothesis: equal volumes of gases, at constant T & P, have the same # particles (1811)…resisted for half century, eventually confirmed

4. Atoms, Molecules, Ions Early experiments/progress
JJ Thomson: cathode ray tubes, electrons!
Millikan: mass of electron, via oil drop experiment
Becquerel: radioactivity
Ernest Rutherford: gold foil expt: nucleus (+), mostly empty space
Think pea in football field…yeah, mostly empty space allright!
Modern view of atomic structure
Extremely small size, knowledge of isotopes
Molecules and Ions
Molecules: from covalent cpds
Formula units: from ionic cpds
Cations and anions

5. Atoms, Molecules, Ions Periodic Table Naming simple compounds
Metals, nonmetals, metalloids
Periods/rows and groups/columns/families
Naming simple compounds
Binary ionic cpds: name cation first, anion second (likely –ide)
Type 1: ions with a single oxidation state
Type 2: ions with multiple possible oxidation states
Need to use –ic or –ous to distinguish (ic is higher # of two choices)
Need to use Roman Numeral to indicate appropriate oxidation state
Ionic cpds with polyatomic ions
Essentially, same deal with larger anions (mostly; only ammonium is common cation)
Binary covalent cpds: two nonmetals; think nitrogen/oxygen cpds
Don’t use mono for first element

6. Atoms, Molecules, Ions Acids If salt is –ate, becomes –ic
If salt is –ite, becomes –ous
If per- or hypo-, these travel as well