1. Chapter 9 Developmental Theories: From Delinquency to Crime to Desistance

2. Introduction
Developmental theories are dynamic in that they emphasize that individuals develop along different pathways, and as they develop factors that were previously meaningful to them no longer are, and factors that previously meant little to them suddenly become meaningful.

3. Testosterone Levels of Human Males and Females Across the Lifespan
Figure 9.2.
Testosterone Levels of Human Males and Females Across the Lifespan
Source: Ellis and Walsh, Criminology: A Global Perspective (2000)

4. Puberty, Adolescence, and Change
During adolescence there is an increase in testosterone, changes in the ration of excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, and the physical restructuring of the brain.
The earlier the onset of puberty, the greater the level of problem behavior for both boys and girls.
Around the age of 20, the transmitters start to decrease and the inhibitory transmitters start to increase. Thus, more adult-like personality traits emerge.

5. Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain
Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors
Warm, supportive relationship with parents and other adults
Parent’s positive evaluation of child’s peers
Parental monitoring
Poor parent-child relationship
Low socioeconomic status
Harsh, lax, or inconsistent parenting
Poor monitoring, supervision
Antisocial parents
Broken home
Abusive parents
Family conflict a
Harsh, lax, or inconsistent parenting
Separation from parents
Neglect
Family
Intolerant attitude toward deviance
High IQ
Being female
Positive social orientation
Perceived sanction for transgressions
Restlessness
Difficulty concentrating a
General offenses
Risk taking
Aggression a
Being male
Physical violence
Antisocial attitudes, beliefs
Crimes against persons
Low IQ
Substance abuse
ADHD/impulsivity
Medical, physical problems
Aggression
Problem (antisocial behavior)
Exposure to TV violence
Dishonestya
Individual

6. Table 9.1 Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain
Stable, organized neighborhood
Neighborhood crime, drugs
Neighborhood disorganization
Community
Friends who engage in conventional behavior
Weak social ties
Antisocial, delinquent peers
Gang membership
Antisocial peers
Peer group
Commitment to school
Recognition for involvement in conventional activities
Poor attitude, performance
Academic failure
School
Adapted from Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. a. Males only.
Table Delinquency Risk Factors by Domain
Domain Early Onset (Ages 6–11) Late Onset (Ages 12–14) Protective Factors

7. ADHD & CD
Risk factor: Something in individuals’ personal characteristics or their environment that increases the probability of violent offending.
ADHD: A chronic neurological condition that is behaviorally manifested as constant restlessness, impulsiveness, difficulty with peers, disruptive behavior, short attention span, academic underachievement, risk taking behavior, and extreme boredom.

8. ADHD & CD ADHD is related to a wide variety of antisocial behaviors.
Conduct disorder (CD): The persistent display of serious antisocial actions that are extreme given the child’s developmental level and have a significant impact on the rights of others.
ADHD delinquents are more likely to persist in their offending as adults, but this probability rises dramatically for ADHD children also diagnosed with CD.
ADHD does not represent a hopeless pathology that leads its victims down the road to inevitable criminality, particularly when CD is not present.

9. Sampson & Laub’s Age Graded Theory
Age-graded theory is essentially a social control theory extended into adulthood to include adult bonds.
People who bond well with conventional others build social capital: A store of positive relationships in social networks built on norms of reciprocity and trust developed over time upon which the individual can draw for support.

10. Sampson and Laub’s Age Graded Theory
Life is a series of transitions which may change a person’s life trajectory in prosocial directions, which Sampson & Laub call turning points.
Age-graded theory strongly emphasizes human agency.
Let’s make a list: What are important TURNING POINTS in life? How could they affect Juvenile Delinquency

11. David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory
The key concepts in ICAP theory are antisocial potential (AP), which is a person’s risk or propensity to engage in crime, and cognition, which is the thinking or decision making process that turns potential into actual process.

12. David Farrington’s Integrated Cognitive Antisocial Potential (ICAP) Theory
Individuals with long-term AP tend to come from poor families, to be poorly socialized, low on anxiety, impulsive, sensation seeking, low IQ, and fail in school.
Short-term AP can turn into long-term AP over time as a consequence of offending.
Short-term AP individuals may temporarily increase their AP in response to certain situations or inducements.