1. Humans came from Africa
Humans came from Africa. What does this tell us about the diversity of Africans compared to Non-Africans?

2. Africans and Non-Africans
Many differences have to do with mitochondrial variation
Mitochondrial variation: the DNA located in mitochondria; cellular organelles within eukaryotic cells that convert chemical energy from food into a form that cells can use, adenosine triphosphate
Closely linked polymorphisms has allowed the interference of phylogenetic relationships between different states encountered which allows recreation of chromosomal segment

3. Addition from David

4. Hardy Weinberg!!! How to solve it and practice problems!
Formulas:
Gene Pool: p+q=1
Population: p^2 + 2pq+q^2=1
Dominant=p Recessive=q
Heterozygous dominant= 2pq
Homozygous dominant= p^2
Homozygous recessive= q^2

5. A school of redhorse suckers (a type of fish) with q= .65
2pq=2*.65*.35=.455
p^2= pq=.455 q^2=.4225
Dom. Pheno.= Rec. Pheno.=.4225

6. Natural Selection vs. types of nonadaptative evolution (include genetic drift and gene flow)
Tajah Mattison

7. Natural Selction
The process when organisms adapt to their environment to survive and produce more offspring.
They get new traits to help them survive.
If the trait helps them survive then it gets passed on to the next generation.

8. Non-adaptive Evolution
Genetic Drift
The change in the frequency of a gene variant in a population due to random sampling.
Does not produce adaptations
Some individuals may leave behind more descendants

9. Non-adaptive Evolution
Gene Flow
The transfer of alleles from one population to another
Can be called migration

10. Types of Speciation (allo, sympatric)

11. Types of Speciation
By:MarKeese Boyd

12. Allopathic Speciation
Allopathic Speciation: geographic barrier causes speciation (Ex. A river or mountain range)

13. Sympatric Speciation
Member of species live side by side but are in different in species (Ex. some insects feed and reproduce on a single type of fruit. If some members of this species try another type of fruit, their offspring may be raised to visit that fruit)

14. How do I tell if 2 populations of similar organisms are 1 species
How do I tell if 2 populations of similar organisms are 1 species? What data could I collect

15. Well to be in the same species, they have to be able to mate, and have the babies able to survive. They babies have to be viable and fertile. There are many barriers that exist to where they cannot mate. Just a few are, Habitat (where they live in a different area), Temporal (they bread during different time periods), and Behavioral (unique behavior patterns & rituals.) There is also Prezygotic Barriers, where there are barriers prior to fertilization, and Postzygotic, which are barriers after fertilization.

16. What types of evidence for phylogenic trees can be used and rate the evidence for accuracy?

17. Well, for one we could take DNA tests of the animals we’re closely related too, to see if it’s true or not. We could also compare types of bones,(Homologous) so to see if we evolved from them. Bone structure, also. There's also Embryology, which is where you compare our fetuses to each other to see if they're similar. If they seem to in the same type of structure, they could be. What type of kingdom and phyla are they from? What type of body lateral thing do they have? Do they have a vertebra? Back bone, exoskeleton and so on. There are many things, but those are the more important of all the ones out there in the world for us to look at.   

18. Why are mass extinctions important in radiation of species and evolution?

19. Mass extinctions are important for the mere of fact that without mass extinction, the planet would be over populated.

20. Since one huge population would be gone, there would be room for more, less successful species to rise and take over the hole in niche. So that's where the “radiation” takes over. The spread and populate the newly open hole, as said earlier.

21. Terms: Homologous, Analogous, Coevolution, convergent Evoltion

22. Terms
Homologous - having the same relation, relative position, or structure, in particular
Analogous - comparable in certain respects, typically in a way that makes clearer the nature of the things compared.

23. Coevolution - the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution.
convergent evolution is the process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches.

24. Characteristics of phylum: Annelida, Mollusca, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, Chordata. Also what’s a deuterostome?

25. Characterisctic = )
Annelida – Body cavity , bilateral , 2 cell layers (worms)
Mollusca – Bilateral , no body cavity , may have dorsal or lateral shells (clams)
Arthropods – six legs , has brain , lives anywhere , body usually divides into two or three , bilateral , has respitory system (spiders)

26. Echinodermata - radial , has body cavity , live in marine environments , no head (starfish )
Chordata – Without excretory organs , Body monomeric with no head or jaws , bilateral ( shark )
Deuterosomes are a superphylum of animals, the anus develops first and then the mouth. Chordates and echinoderms

27. Make an accurate phylogentic tree from this data and explain how and why you made your decisions:

28. Vertebrae= Everything
Bony Skeleton= Sharks& Relatives
Four limbs= Ray-finned fish
Amniotic egg= Amphibians
Two post-orbital fenestrae= Dinosaurs& Birds, Crocodiles& Relatives
Hair= Rodents& Rabbits, Primates